Approaches Used to Determine Correct Doctrine

As we embark on this venture to examine the history of Christian theology, it is important to understand the tools that people used to gage the veracity of ideas and doctrines so that we can better understand the perspective of the adherents to those various beliefs and to more fully appreciate one another’s faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more.

We begin by briefly addressing the following seven concepts that have influenced individual’s and societies’ conclusions regarding the truth of religious teachings throughout history:

1. One’s Worldview
2. Scripture
3. Tradition
4. ReasonThe capacity to logically and consciously establish facts and prioritize values. Reason is often considered to be a distinctly human capacity. Christianity considers it to be a unique gift to humanity, that through reason humanity is made in God’s likeness.... more
5. Experience
6. Moral Influence, and
7. A Balanced Approach

Understanding how others determined which doctrines were orthodoxDerived from a Greek term meaning “right belief” and also “right worship.” When the term is not capitalized it typically refers to teachings in Christian traditions that are not heretical. When capitalized it refers to the mainstream Christian tradition in... more and which ones were heretical enables us to see how various concepts developed over time as well as assists us in sharpening the focus of our own personal perspective.

I. Our Worldview Shapes our Opinions and Conclusions

Even though individuals often do not realize it, everyone has a worldview. This perspective is the lens through which we understand and interpret life. A person’s worldview greatly influences his or her attitudes, beliefs, anxieties and decisions. It is probably the most important issue one needs to consider when searching for truth and understanding of other people. For success in this endeavor, it is vital that one identify and understand one’s own and other’s distinct worldviews. Additionally, if you want personal growth, one should realize that it is difficult to make any dramatic lasting change in your personal life without modifying your worldview. That is what faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more and religion often does. Theology is basically the collective worldview of a religious community which greatly influences the personal perspective of the members of that traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more.

Religions greatly impact the worldview of their followers and how they evaluate the beliefs found in other traditions. In order to facilitate understanding and constructive dialog between various religions, it is helpful to understand the perspective of different belief systems. Even though each traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more has both a greater breadth and depth of nuanced theology, the following is a very general summary of the worldview of the major world religions and belief systems:

• Eastern religions are centered on the cycles of existence;
• IslamIs one of the three Abrahamic religions (Christianity and Judaism the other two) that stresses the importance of the only one true God and man’s forgetfulness as source of sin. The religion was founded by Muhammad in the early 7th... more stresses the importance of God and human forgetfulness;
• Judaism is founded on God’s covenant relationship with his people;
• Mormonism emphasizes human growth and development to become like God;
• Eastern Orthodox ChristianitySee orthodox. more focuses on their members’ union with God;
• Western Christianity is engrossed with the issue of forgiveness of sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more, with the Roman Catholic traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more placing weight on obtaining graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more through their sacraments, including works of penanceIs an old version of the word “repentance,” and refers to: 1) the Catholic sacrament also referred to as Confession where remorseful sinner (the “penitent”) confesses sins to a priest (the “confessor:”) who grants absolution; 2) the activities stipulated by... more, while Protestants rely on free graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more.
• Modern secularOf the world in contrast to the divine. more belief is based on an atheistic nihilist view with reliance on science.

What is important to believers in one traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more may not matter much to followers of another religion. For example, Western Christianity’s major debate regarding free will verses predestinationThe Augustinian doctrine that God bestows the grace of salvation on some individuals while assigning others to hell, independent of human choice or actions. This concept was shared by Aquinas, Luther, and John Calvin, with Calvin emphasizing and expanding it... more holds little interest to Orthodox theologians. As we proceed through this course of study of the history of Christian theology, it is important to keep these various worldviews in mind.

In his book, Outliers Malcolm Gladwell documents how “cultural legacies are powerful forces” impacting our world today in ways we hardly expect. It is why Orientals are good with math, why some individuals with the same intelligence succeed while others fail, and until recently it was the cause of most commercial airline crashes. This cultural legacy informs the worldview of each community’s descendents for generations. Even as Western society jettisons its Judeo-Christian moorings, their influence is still evident in our modern secularOf the world in contrast to the divine. more world. In order to understand our world today, one needs to grasp the ideas and values that are the foundation on which much of our society is built. Understanding our religious heritage will open our eyes to the influence it continues to exert on our lives and help us evaluate our modern beliefs and attitudes.

II. What Does the Bible Say?

Historically, the most important tool Christians universally utilize to judge the veracity of any doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more is scripture. Yet, many Christians do not realize that the Bible they cherish has undergone several complex developments over time and has been and continues to be subject to vast differences of interpretations among the various Jewish and Christian sects and denominations. We will address the development of the Bible in later posts. At this point, we will introduce the reoccurring issue regarding the interpretation of the Bible, which subject will be revisited in more detail several times as the story of Christian theology unfolds.

The Catholic Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more maintains that scripture can only be properly interpreted through the lens of Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more, while Protestants downplay the role of traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more and generally stress what they view is the clear meaning of scripture, and insist that the Bible alone is the sole source of authority regarding Christian doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more. Even within Protestantism there are disputes regarding the extent to which teachings and practices that are not expressly stated in the Bible can properly be incorporated into the Church’s religious life. LutherMartin Luther (A.D. 1483–1546) German theologian, pastor, professor at the University of Wittenberg, ex-monk, and founding figure of Protestantism. He was known for his doctrine of justification by faith alone and his insistence on distinguishing between Law and Gospel. more held that many practices, such as the wearing of vestments or the use of stain glass images, are irrelevant to salvation so it doesn’t matter whether one engages in those practices or not, while JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more CalvinJohn Calvin (A.D. 1509-1564) French Protestant theologian who lived most of his adult life in Geneva. He was the most influential figure in Reformed theology and author of the Institutes, the most important systematic theology text of Protestantism. more applied a strict approach that prohibited anything that was not sanctioned by scripture. Regardless of these variances, the Bible remains the most important source of truth for most Christians.

a. Literal verses Allegorical Interpretation of Scripture

The main on-going dispute regarding the interpretation of scripture is whether it is to be understood literally or allegorically. But this is a false narrative. It is not an either-or proposition, but is an issue of degree. Hardly any Christian believes that the Bible is simply a history book without any added meaning, or that it is simply an allegorical tale. Throughout history Jews and Christians have simultaneously understood their scriptures literally and symbolically in varying degrees with differences primarily arising from the meaning they ascribe to the events and messages it contains. One’s worldview greatly informs that understanding.

The Bible, both Old and New Testaments, was basically written by Jews. The dispute between literal and allegorical reading of scripture was a hotly contested issue at the time of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more. Sadducees, who were the aristocratic priestly class, rejected every religious concept and practice that was not found in a literal reading of scripture. They rebuffed Pharisaical use of allegorical interpretation and the oral law that had developed over the centuries as a hedge around the written lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more, ostensibly to protect Jews from violating it. Sadducees solely and strictly followed the prescribed lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more dealing with the temple and considered a belief in an afterlife and spirits as foolish superstitions, while Pharisees placed so much emphasis on their oral traditions that they warranted repeated rebukes from Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more.

Ancient Jewish culture developed within the broader context of oriental culture that used imagery and figurative language extensively, so to some extent their writings should be read in that light. Even though the Jews practiced the ceremonial lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more as it was literally prescribed, most Jews at the time of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more also viewed scripture from a symbolic perspective, such as AbrahamAbraham (c. 1800 B.C.) The founding figure of the world’s three monotheistic religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. He is the first person in recorded history to introduce into a polytheistic world the concept of one true God, however the Bible... more foreshadowing Israel going down to and returning from Egypt. Rabbinical Judaism that utilized extensive allegorical interpretation flourished after the fall of Jerusalem in 70 A.D. This is greatly due to the influence of a Platonist Jewish philosopher named Philo(c. 20 B.C.–A.D. 50) Jewish philosopher and exegete who used an allegorical method to interpret the scriptures that was influential on ancient Christian writers, especially in Alexandria. more from Alexandria in Egypt who was a contemporary of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more. This approach to scriptural interpretation carried over into the early Christian community from their Jewish roots. As they read their Hebrew Bible, they found many types for ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more such as the Pascal Lamb, King David(c. 1000 B.C.) David is known for killing the giant Goliath when he was a young shepherd and later when he was king of Israel expanding the territory and glory of the kingdom. He wrote a number of the poetic... more, and Jonah spending three days in the belly of a fish.

Christianity was born into a Greco-Roman world that greatly influenced Christianity and its believers. Christianity’s allegorical approach to interpreting scripture also had roots in this Greco-Roman influence, particularly Platonist philosophy. The expansion of Greek culture by Alexander the GreatAlexander the Great (356–323 B.C.) was King of Macedon and went on to create one of the largest empires of the ancient world by the time he was thirty, extending from Greece to northwest India. He was undefeated in battle... more over time led to the dilution of its classical roots and a deterioration of its society, eventually leading to its conquest by Rome. As Greece floundered, philosophers became the moral compass for society. These philosophers, particularly the StoicsA respected and popular school of ancient philosophy that taught that living by reason without passions was the path to wisdom, happiness and fulfillment and served as one of the most widely accepted forms of moralism in the Greco-Roman world.... more and Platonists, attempted to explain many of the classic Greek myths about the gods that were hardly edifying, in an allegorical manner in order to find some moral lesson. Alexandria, with the world’s largest library, was the seat of learning and of this allegorical school of thought. Alexandria had a large Jewish population–over twenty-five percent–that participated in this academic culture. Indeed, the first Greek translation of the Hebrew bible, the Septuagint, which early Christians used, was written by Jewish scholars in Alexandria around two hundred years before ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more. This Greek allegorical approach was adopted by rabbinical Judaism, and appealed to many gentile Christian converts due to their Greco-Roman roots.

However, the Alexandrian allegorical school of thought had its rival in AntiochA large and important city in Syria and the meeting point of the East and West. more, which followed a more literal reading of scripture. This led to a great deal of conflict in the early Christian Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more requiring numerous councils and synods to address issues raised by these different approaches to understanding scripture. Over the centuries this tension between a literal and allegorical interpretation of scripture never completely disappeared and periodically took center stage.

b. Variations in Translations

In the late Middle-Ages the predominate scholastic approach to reading scripture tilted heavily towards the allegorical approach, which often included multiple layers of interpretation of scripture. However, the RenaissanceThe term derived from the Latin word meaning “reborn” that refers to the European cultural movement from the 14th to the 17th centuries that sought to advance learning through the recovery of classical texts and ideas and saw great advances... more and its Christian Humanist movement launched a quest to understand scripture according to the historical meaning found in their original languages. This cutting-edge biblical scholarship greatly contributed to the Protestant Reformation(A.D. 1517) The Protestant Reformation begins as Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses, largely in response to the widespread abuses caused by the aggressive commercialization of indulgences. more and a tendency to latch onto just one, more literal understanding of Biblical texts. Ironically, three hundred years later, Protestants found their literal beliefs in scripture challenged by 19^th Century scholars using an historical critical method of Biblical scholarship.

Which translation is used by students of the Bible often impacts their understanding of the text. This has been true throughout history. In the 2^nd Century, Justin Martyr(c.A.D 100–165) Born in Palestine early in the 2nd century, Justin was educated as a philosopher and converted to Christianity, retaining many of his Platonist convictions. He wrote an important Apology (meaning a defense of Christianity against the pagans) and... more, in his dialog with the Jewish philosopher, Trypho, had to debate which translations of various scripture were correct. For example, Justin quoted Isaiah from the Greek Septuagint as saying, “Behold, a virgin shall conceive, and shall bear a son, and they shall call his name Immanuel.” Trypho in turn argued that the word “virgin” should be translated as “young woman.” The translation of this simple verse makes a big difference.

In the late 4^th Century, Jerome(A.D. 27 Mar 347–30 Sep 420) Jerome was a Catholic theologian who is best known for his translation of most of the Bible into Latin. Known as the Vulgate, his translation became the official translation of the Bible by the Church. more accomplished a monumental task of translating the Old and New Testaments into Latin, and scholars remain impressed with the quality of his work. This translation, known as the VulgateA Latin version of the Bible, composed in the 4th Century AD for use in the Roman Church, and which displaced a plethora of previous competing Latin translations. It thus became the “versio vulgate”, or the “version commonly used”/“standard version”.... more, became the official Catholic translation of scripture. However, it did not take long for major doctrinal issues to flow out of his work. Augustin of Hippo, who made the greatest impact on Christian theology after the Apostlesfrom a Greek word meaning “messenger.” This term often refers to the original twelve disciples of Jesus that he selected , ordained and sent out to teach all nations and comprised of the ruling body of the early Church. Other... more, relied on Jerome’s translation of Roman’s 5:12, which reads: “Propterea sicut per unum hominem peccatum in hunc mundum intravit, et per peccatum mors, pertransiit, in quo omnes peccaverunt.” (“Wherefore, as by one man sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more entered into the world and death by sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more; and so death passed upon all men, in whom all have sinned.”)(emphasis added). Augustin, who was not fluent in Greek, accepted Jerome’s translation that “in whom (Adam) all have sinned,” to be correct, and accordingly developed his theory of original or inherited sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more based on this translation. Most scholars today agree that the correct translation of this verse into Latin should be, “Quia, propterea quod” (“for that all have sinned” or “because all have sinned.”)¹ In spite of this tenable origin, the concept of original sinThe doctrine developed by Augustine in the late 4th century that all human beings inherit the guilt of Adam’s sin and deserve damnation from birth. This is more than simply being born with a corrupt sinful nature that later leads... more, which the Greek-speaking Orthodox branch of Christianity does not follow, is the foundation of much of Western Christian theology, both Catholic and ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more.

This example is not an isolated issue with the VulgateA Latin version of the Bible, composed in the 4th Century AD for use in the Roman Church, and which displaced a plethora of previous competing Latin translations. It thus became the “versio vulgate”, or the “version commonly used”/“standard version”.... more translation. In 1516, one year before Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the chapel door, the renowned Christian Humanist, Erasmus(A.D. 28 Dec 1466–12 Jul 1536) Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus is often referred to as the Prince of the Humanists. He was renowned as the greatest scholar of Northern Europe when the Protestant Reformation began. He advocated reform of the Catholic... more, published his translation of the New Testament with parallel texts of the Greek and Latin translations side by side. This work was well read by the intellectual community and brought both praise and criticism because it raised challenges to some of the Church’s fundamental doctrines. For example, he translated JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more the Baptist’s exhortation to repent found in Matthew 3:2 to read, “Turn to me,” instead of “Do penanceIs an old version of the word “repentance,” and refers to: 1) the Catholic sacrament also referred to as Confession where remorseful sinner (the “penitent”) confesses sins to a priest (the “confessor:”) who grants absolution; 2) the activities stipulated by... more.” The implication was glaring. JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more was calling people to reorient themselves to God and not to participate in the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more sacrament more of confessionthis word has several theological uses. 1) It refers to the act of confessing one’s sins, and particularly the confession of sins to a priest in the sacrament of Penance, that is often called “Confession;” 2) reciting a creed or... more. LutherMartin Luther (A.D. 1483–1546) German theologian, pastor, professor at the University of Wittenberg, ex-monk, and founding figure of Protestantism. He was known for his doctrine of justification by faith alone and his insistence on distinguishing between Law and Gospel. more, along with other reformers, read Erasmus’ translation, and other such works, which helped inform their perspective of correct doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more and fuel the Protestant Reformation(A.D. 1517) The Protestant Reformation begins as Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses, largely in response to the widespread abuses caused by the aggressive commercialization of indulgences. more.

In addition to the quality of its translation, we also face the issue of the accuracy of the transcription of the Bible. For millennia, the Bible had to be tediously copied by hand, and occasional mistakes and even intentional editorial edits were bound to occur. For example, it is undisputed among scholars of all faiths that the verse found in 1 JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more 5:7, “For there are three that bear record in heaven, the Father, the Word, and the Holy Ghost: and these three are one,” was not in the original Greek text but was added in the 12^th Century. So, even when one believes that the Bible is the word of God in its original form, the Bible we read today is not exactly the same, which can lead to misunderstanding and disagreement among believers.

c. Deism and Natural Religion

The Protestant Reformation(A.D. 1517) The Protestant Reformation begins as Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses, largely in response to the widespread abuses caused by the aggressive commercialization of indulgences. more was followed by religious wars for much of the 16^th and 17^th Centuries. This relentless flow of blood gave many persons, scholar and uneducated alike, cause to question religious faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more, especially while science, based in reason, was making unparalleled leaps forward. By the 18^th Century more and more people questioned the authority of state churches such as the Catholic, Lutheran, and Anglican churches. Indeed, they questioned the authority of the state in general leading to the American and French revolutions. On the other hand, people often looked down on the low churches without a strong hierarchical order, such as Quakers(A.D. 1650) The Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as Quakers, form in England based on the preaching of George Fox. more and Baptists, for being carried away with enthusiasmwas originally used as a pejorative term applied to those who believed in personal revelation from God, primarily Quakers, indicating self-delusion due to religious fanaticism. more. People began to gravitate to the security they found in science and reason. They questioned the reality of the supernaturalIs a theological concept developed in Roman Catholic theology primarily by Thomas Aquinas that maintains that God dispenses his grace in at various times and places in ways that not only assist the natural world including human nature, but also... more, where God purportedly intervenes in the affairs on earth through supernaturalIs a theological concept developed in Roman Catholic theology primarily by Thomas Aquinas that maintains that God dispenses his grace in at various times and places in ways that not only assist the natural world including human nature, but also... more graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more. They viewed claims of miracles and the mystery of the trinity as nothing more than superstition. Yet, they loved Jesus’s moral teachings and believed that there was a God who would reward good behavior and punish wickedness after one is deceased. Deism and the concept of Natural Religion was born.

The Advent of Deism significantly impacted the way many persons viewed and read the Bible. Deists thought that natural religionRefers to a religion developed during the Enlightenment based on reason in contrast to revelation, i.e. “positive” religion such as Judaism and traditional Christianity. Its proponents believed that the true universal religion consisted of Judeo-Christian moral teachings stripped of non-rational... more, verses “revealed” or “positive religionRevealed (as in the Bible), as opposed to natural religion. more” as found in the churches of their day, was the universally true faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more based on morality and reason. They felt that at the root of all religious belief was this basic moral foundation that is corrupted by institutionalized religions with their creeds. There was no room for authoritarian priests, miracles and incomprehensible dogmas. ReasonThe capacity to logically and consciously establish facts and prioritize values. Reason is often considered to be a distinctly human capacity. Christianity considers it to be a unique gift to humanity, that through reason humanity is made in God’s likeness.... more and goodwill ruled in their minds. As the philosopher HumeDavid Hume (1711–1776) used John Locke's standard to declare that it would take a miracle to believe a miracle. more mused, it takes a miracle to believe a miracle. Many of the founders of the United States, such as Ben Franklin and Thomas JeffersonThomas Jefferson (A.D. 1743–1826) was an American statesman and founding figure of the United States of America. He was the primary author of the Declaration of Independence. Jefferson also authored the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom which served as intellectual predecessor of... more, subscribed to Deist beliefs. Thomas JeffersonThomas Jefferson (A.D. 1743–1826) was an American statesman and founding figure of the United States of America. He was the primary author of the Declaration of Independence. Jefferson also authored the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom which served as intellectual predecessor of... more, even being a religious personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more, cut out of his Bible every reference to miracles and the supernaturalIs a theological concept developed in Roman Catholic theology primarily by Thomas Aquinas that maintains that God dispenses his grace in at various times and places in ways that not only assist the natural world including human nature, but also... more.

d. Pietism, Romanticism, Schleiermacher and the turn to emotional experience

Around the same time Deism was cutting its teeth, another quite different movement began in Lutheran Germany. After Luther’s death, LutheranismIs named after Martin Luther and was the first form of Protestantism and became the official form of Christianity in many German territories and in the Scandinavian countries. It remains one of the major arms of Protestantism in contrast with... more gravitated towards scholasticismRefers to the rational approach to theology that dominated Roman Catholic ideas in the High and Late Middle Ages that developed in the universities in contrast with the more devotional form of theology found in the monasteries during the early... more similar to the Catholic scholasticismRefers to the rational approach to theology that dominated Roman Catholic ideas in the High and Late Middle Ages that developed in the universities in contrast with the more devotional form of theology found in the monasteries during the early... more that LutherMartin Luther (A.D. 1483–1546) German theologian, pastor, professor at the University of Wittenberg, ex-monk, and founding figure of Protestantism. He was known for his doctrine of justification by faith alone and his insistence on distinguishing between Law and Gospel. more had earlier criticized for emphasizing intellectualism more than one’s relationship with God. At that time, Lutheran ministers were trained to basically provide scriptural proofs for Lutheran tenets. This tracked the cultural trend of making reason the new arbiter of truth. By the late 17^th Century, religion was becoming more a matter of the head than the heart. This concerned Lutheran minister Philipp Jakob Spencer, who felt that true piety required a personal relationship with God. In 1675, he published his book, Pia Desideria (“Pious Desires”) which led to the Pietist movement(A.D. 1675) Lutheran pastor Philipp Jakob Spener inaugurates the Pietist movement in Germany when he publishes his book Pia Desideria (“Pious Desires”). Pietism is a Protestant movement beginning with Lutheranism in the 17th and 18th that emphasized and emotional theology... more in LutheranismIs named after Martin Luther and was the first form of Protestantism and became the official form of Christianity in many German territories and in the Scandinavian countries. It remains one of the major arms of Protestantism in contrast with... more. Scriptural reading shifted from an academic exercise to one that focused on inspiring readers and listeners.

This movement spilled over into the general ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more community and inspired other preachers such as Jonathon EdwardsJonathan Edwards (A.D. 1703-1758) Puritan minister, Calvinist theologian, the first American theorist of revival, and leader of the Great Awakening in New England. more and George Whitefield(A.D. 16 Dec 1714–30 Sep 1770) George Whitefield was an ordained Anglican clergy who became one of the most popular Evangelist preachers during the 18th Century in both England and America. He often preached outside to thousands of listeners and... more who were instrumental in the American 18^th Century 1^st Great AwakeningRefers to two periods of religious revival, the first beginning around 1740s in colonial America lead by George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards, and the second beginning in the early 1800s where Methodists played a major role. more and also JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more Wesley(A.D. 1703–1791) Anglican priest, revival preacher and organizer, and together with his brother Charles, a founding figure of Methodism, whose theology combines Arminianism and Pietism and is known for a strong emphasis on sanctification, including the expectation that believers will... more who formed the Methodist movement that was influential in the early 19^th Century 2^nd Great AwakeningRefers to two periods of religious revival, the first beginning around 1740s in colonial America lead by George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards, and the second beginning in the early 1800s where Methodists played a major role. more. Current-day evangelicalismHistorically this term refers the religious movement beginning in the 18th century that emphasized conversion that was often communicated through revivals and to the religious traditions that grew out of that movement (typically Methodist and various branches of Calvinism and... more and Pentecostalism can trace some of their roots to this Pietist movement(A.D. 1675) Lutheran pastor Philipp Jakob Spener inaugurates the Pietist movement in Germany when he publishes his book Pia Desideria (“Pious Desires”). Pietism is a Protestant movement beginning with Lutheranism in the 17th and 18th that emphasized and emotional theology... more stressing an emotional connection with the divine.

Just as the spectrum of the Christian community expanded to include the rational Deists at one end and the emotional Pietists on the other, the intellectual community was experiencing a similar expansive dichotomy. The 17th and 18^th Centuries formed the Age of EnlightenmentA broad term for 18th century European intellectual developments, including deism and other movements critical of orthodox Christianity, that are characteristically modern, emphasizing reason against tradition and authority. Refers to the period of intellectual and cultural development in Europe and... more, an era of reason giving birth to the scientific method with its amazing discoveries. PhilosophyDerived from the Greek term “philosophia”, the term literally means “love of wisdom”. Philosophy usually involves questioning, critical discussion, and rational argument. Greek philosophy laid the intellectual groundwork for Christian theology, and the concerns of the two areas of inquiry... more blossomed with philosophers like Kant(A.D. 1724–1804) German thinker generally recognized as the greatest philosopher of the modern period. He revolutionized modern epistemology with the argument that the mind is active in shaping our experience. He argued that we can think, but not know God... more linking faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more with reason. On the other hand, many intellectuals feared that society was losing its humanity, the creative essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more that makes us human and connects us with the divine and the universe. European RomanticismThe cultural movement during the late 18th and early 19th centuries that emphasized feelings, creativity and nature in contrast to the Enlightenments rationalistic approach to life. more was their answer. RomanticismThe cultural movement during the late 18th and early 19th centuries that emphasized feelings, creativity and nature in contrast to the Enlightenments rationalistic approach to life. more was a cultural artistic movement that fostered creativity in art, music and poetry. They valued the beauty of nature and our connection with it. RomanticismThe cultural movement during the late 18th and early 19th centuries that emphasized feelings, creativity and nature in contrast to the Enlightenments rationalistic approach to life. more was more of a religion of nature as opposed to the Deists’ natural religionRefers to a religion developed during the Enlightenment based on reason in contrast to revelation, i.e. “positive” religion such as Judaism and traditional Christianity. Its proponents believed that the true universal religion consisted of Judeo-Christian moral teachings stripped of non-rational... more of the mind. They valued the freedom and inspiration found in the expression of human creativity. To this day, we value the fruits of this movement which produced some of our most cherished art and music.

The theologian and philosopher Friedrich SchleiermacherFriedrich Schleiermacher (A.D. 1768–1834) German theologian and philosopher, minister in the Reformed church, professor at the University of Berlin (A.D. 1811–1834), and founding figure of Protestant liberalism. He was the most influential Protestant thinker of the 19th century. In response... more, the father of Modern Christian Liberal Theology(A.D. 1799) Friedrich Schleiermacher publishes his book, On Religion: Speeches to Its Cultured Despisers, and initiates the movement referred to as liberal Protestant theology. more (“liberal” has no reference to political ideology), was born in Germany near the end of this age on November 21, 1768. His work paved the way for the development referred to as “higher criticism” that rocked Biblical understanding in the early 19^th Century.

e. Liberal Theology and the Critical Reading of Scripture

The Age of Enlightenment ushered in an era where reason challenged scripture as the ultimate arbiter of truth. Kant(A.D. 1724–1804) German thinker generally recognized as the greatest philosopher of the modern period. He revolutionized modern epistemology with the argument that the mind is active in shaping our experience. He argued that we can think, but not know God... more introduced the concept of rational faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more, SchleiermacherFriedrich Schleiermacher (A.D. 1768–1834) German theologian and philosopher, minister in the Reformed church, professor at the University of Berlin (A.D. 1811–1834), and founding figure of Protestant liberalism. He was the most influential Protestant thinker of the 19th century. In response... more defined piety in terms of experience and Hagel viewed history as the means by which divinity and humanity developed a sense of mutual self-consciousness. This process gave birth to Liberal ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more Theology where the Bible is read in a whole new way.

As an ordained Reformed minister, SchleiermacherFriedrich Schleiermacher (A.D. 1768–1834) German theologian and philosopher, minister in the Reformed church, professor at the University of Berlin (A.D. 1811–1834), and founding figure of Protestant liberalism. He was the most influential Protestant thinker of the 19th century. In response... more appealed to his elite friends with his 1799 work, On Religion: Speeches to its Cultured Despisers, wherein he asserts that despite his Romanticist friends’ aversion to religion, they were actually in touch with true religion―feelings that connect us with the infinite. SchleiermacherFriedrich Schleiermacher (A.D. 1768–1834) German theologian and philosopher, minister in the Reformed church, professor at the University of Berlin (A.D. 1811–1834), and founding figure of Protestant liberalism. He was the most influential Protestant thinker of the 19th century. In response... more rejected all of the dogmas, priesthoods and rituals of institutional religions as corruptions of Christ’s original pure religion. In essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more, Schleiermacher’s theology consisted of a quest for unity between human consciousness and the divine infinite source of all existence. We are able to overcome our sin-consciousness that is attracted to finite things through our contact with Christ’s perfect God-consciousness. As we gain an impression of Jesus’s personality and feel an indication of his perfect unity with the divine, his perfect God-consciousness displaces our own flawed sin-consciousness, which redeems our soul from our fallen state. This quest to discover the real historical Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more in order to gain a greater appreciation and impression of his personality became a central theme of his followers.

In 1835, the German scholar David(c. 1000 B.C.) David is known for killing the giant Goliath when he was a young shepherd and later when he was king of Israel expanding the territory and glory of the kingdom. He wrote a number of the poetic... more Strauss(A.D. 1808–1874) David Friedrich Strauss was a German Protestant theologian. Strauss influence European Christianity with his writings on a “historical Jesus”, whose divine nature he denied. more created an uproar when he published his book, The Life of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more, in which he asserted that much of the scriptural account of Jesus’s life is simply myth. Other German Scholars, mainly based in the University of Berlin(A.D. 1811) Schleiermacher becomes the first professor of theology at the new University of Berlin which becomes one of the most influential universities in the world. more that SchleiermacherFriedrich Schleiermacher (A.D. 1768–1834) German theologian and philosopher, minister in the Reformed church, professor at the University of Berlin (A.D. 1811–1834), and founding figure of Protestant liberalism. He was the most influential Protestant thinker of the 19th century. In response... more helped found, published various scholarly works using linguistics to show that the Bible was not what it was purported to be, such as the PentateuchThe first five books of the Hebrew Bible and Old Testament, traditionally viewed as being written by Moses. more, which traditionally was referred to as the five books of Moses(Died c. 1400 B.C.) Moses was a Hebrew prophet who led his people out of slavery in Egypt. He instituted the Mosaic Law consisting of both ritual and moral elements. Many Christians believe that this law is part of God’s... more. According to their analysis, these first books in the Bible came from four different sources after the Jews had returned to Jerusalem from Babylon around 537 BC, not from one source, purportedly Moses(Died c. 1400 B.C.) Moses was a Hebrew prophet who led his people out of slavery in Egypt. He instituted the Mosaic Law consisting of both ritual and moral elements. Many Christians believe that this law is part of God’s... more, 1500 years earlier. They pointed to various issues such as the use of two names for God, Yahweh (JehovahJehovah is one of the proposed ways to pronounce YHWH, the most commonly used name of God in the Hebrew Bible. It is thought to be an ancient form of the third-person singular imperfect tense of the verb “to be”... more) and Elohim, to prove their hypothesis.

These scholarly works challenged the faith of many traditional Christians, inspired the liberal theologians, and elicited responses from conservative critics. Liberal Christian leaders like Horace BushnellHorace Bushnell (A.D. 1802–1876) was an American theologian and minister who, against significant opposition, taught that God could only be explained in approximate language and so there can never be a complete and definitive dogmatic theology. Instead, direct spiritual experiences, intuitions,... more, a congregationalist pastor and writer, and French philosopher Paul RicoeurPaul Ricoeur (A.D. 1913–2005) was a French philosopher who was distinguished for revolutionizing the methods of hermeneutic phenomenology to be applied to textual interpretations of mythology, Biblical exegesis, psychoanalysis, metaphors, and narratives. more, stressed that the Bible should not be read as a set of propositions of specific truths, but figuratively as inspirational stories and poetic reflections of life. However, many traditionalists were unfazed by the claims of higher criticism and simply pointed out that Moses’s original books were subject to numerous transcriptions and translations, which easily could have produced the results these German scholars relied upon in reaching their conclusions. Interestingly, years earlier, the Mormon prophet, Joseph Smith(A.D. 1805–1844) Joseph Smith, Jr. was an American religious leader who published the Book of Mormon and founded the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (commonly referred to as “Mormon”). His followers considered him to be a prophet similar... more, taught that the term Elohim referred to God the Father while the term JehovahJehovah is one of the proposed ways to pronounce YHWH, the most commonly used name of God in the Hebrew Bible. It is thought to be an ancient form of the third-person singular imperfect tense of the verb “to be”... more referred to the premortal Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more, both being separate distinct beings. Regardless, these scholars’ astounding allegations provoked a dramatic reaction from conservative Christians, especially as many mainstream ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more denominations began to adopt liberal theological ideas.

f. Fundamentalist claim of Inerrant Scripture

In 1909 the devout PresbyterianA religion controlled at the local level by an assembly of elders or selected representatives. See polity and presbyters. Mainstream of English Puritanism in the 17th century were Presbyterians who sought to revive the original form of church government based... more founder of Union Oil, Lyman Stewart, conceived of and funded an effort to combat the growing influence of the German intellectual movement known as Liberal ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more Theology and its “higher criticism” which was gaining favor among many intellectuals in the mainline ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more denominations. They published a twelve-volume set of essays written by various pastors and professors regarding what they deemed to be basic Christian doctrines and called the work, The Fundamentals(A.D. 1910–1915) Publication of The Fundamentals, a series of books from which the Fundamentalist movement took its name. more. They maintained that certain tenets of the Christian faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more were so fundamental, such as the virgin birth of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more, Christ’s eternal divinity and his vicarious atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more, that no one could be a real Christian unless he or she accepted these truths. Among these asserted irrefutable articles of true Christian faith was the inerrancy of the Bible.

The conservatives threw down the gauntlet that was picked up by liberal theologians, and an intense debate raged on for a couple of decades. In 1922, the liberal BaptistThe first English Baptist congregation is created (A.D. 1609) out of a Puritan Separatist congregation that is meeting in exile in the Netherlands. This tradition grew out of the English Puritan Separatist movement in the 17th century and later spread... more pastor named Harry Fosdick(A.D. 1878–1969) Harry Emerson Fosdick was an American Baptist minister who also worked interdenominationally. He was a major player in a schism between fundamentalist and modernist camps in American Protestantism. Fosdick was an outspoken proponent of modernist views and interpretations. more delivered a fiery attack on conservatives titled, “Shall the Fundamentalists Win?” which was answered by Princeton University professor J. Gersham Machem’s essay “Christianity or Liberalism.” It all came to a head in 1925 with the famous Scopes “Monkey Trial” in Tennessee regarding the teaching of evolution in the public schools. It actually was a publicity stunt set up to embarrass fundamentalist Christians. It proved disastrous to them in large measure due to the satirical reporting of atheistA person who denies the existence of all deity. more journalist H. L. MenckenH. L. Mencken (A.D. 1880–1956) Controversial American journalist and critic renowned for his biting critiques of provincialism and prudery in American society. His scathing portrayal of fundamentalists during the Scopes “Monkey Trial” generated a cultural stereotype that persists to this... more. He was successful in portraying fundamentalist as ignorant back-country yokels who were completely out of touch with the times and reality.

One eventful exchange during the trial occurred when the state called the defense attorney, three-time Democrat presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan, to the stand as an adverse expert witness. Bryan, one of the most prominent religious figures of his day, was asked if he believed the literal word of the Bible. After affirming this belief, he backtracked when asked if he believed the world was created in six, twenty-four-hour days. He admitted that he believed the reference to “days” in the creation story found in Genesis actually referred to time periods, not literal days. His credibility was shot, along with fundamentalists who insisted on an inerrant Bible.

We are now brought full circle back to the first issue raised of whether the Bible should be read literally or allegorically. The Scopes trial ended, but the debate still rages on. Regardless, most Christians believe the Bible to be the word of God to the extent it is translated correctly and that it expresses truth both literally and allegorically in varying degrees. For Christians, the Bible remains the most important and widely used instrument to establish orthodoxy. However, despite the oft repeated refrain of sola scripturaIs a Latin term meaning “scripture alone,” and refers to the popular Protestant slogan during the Reformation that summarized the Protestant conviction that only what is explicitly or by clear implication taught in the Bible is binding on the conscience... more(“scripture alone”), it is not the only arbiter of truth that Christians have utilized.

We will explore these other methods in the following essay. (Click below for more):

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What is True? continued