WHAT IS TRUE? continued

In the prior post we explored how one’s worldview and scripture have influenced Christianity’s belief in orthodoxy. We continue this analysis by exploring how tradition, reason, emotion, and moral results have influenced this quest and shaped a balanced approach in Christianity’s search for truth.

III. Tradition

The Catholic response to liberal theology was to double-down on its tenets regarding papal authority and traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more.

In 1854 Pope Pius IX(A.D. 1792–1878) Also known by the Italian form of his name, “Pio Nono,” pope from 1846–1878, the longest reigning pope in history, who defined the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception in 1854, promulgated the Syllabus of Errors in 1864, and... more, the longest serving popeThe Roman Catholic bishop of Rome who is regarded as the successor of the chief apostle, Peter, and as the Vicar of Christ is the holder of the Apostolic See and head of Christ’s church on earth. more in history, declared that the debated doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of the Virgin Mary’s Immaculate ConceptionA Roman Catholic tradition that that the Virgin Mary was conceived without original sin. This doctrine was formally accepted by Pope Pius IX in A.D. 1854, as official doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church in his proclamation, In Ineffabilis Deus... more was official Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more, and that those who disagreed would be subject to both ecclesiasticalFrom the Greek word ecclesia, meaning church or congregation and is used to refer to both separate Christian congregations and to the whole body of Christians. more and civil discipline. This was the first time that a popeThe Roman Catholic bishop of Rome who is regarded as the successor of the chief apostle, Peter, and as the Vicar of Christ is the holder of the Apostolic See and head of Christ’s church on earth. more had affirmatively declared doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more without convening a council of bishops. Up to that point in time, councils affirmatively declared what was official doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more while the popeThe Roman Catholic bishop of Rome who is regarded as the successor of the chief apostle, Peter, and as the Vicar of Christ is the holder of the Apostolic See and head of Christ’s church on earth. more on occasion would declare what was heretical. This took place at the same time liberal theology, modern philosophical ideas and liberal political thought was making great inroads in society.

Some Catholics, including high-ranking officials, felt that the Pope was over-reaching his authority. Pope Pius had had enough of this push-back and what he viewed as undermining of the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more and the corruption of society. So, in 1864, he published an encyclicalrefers to a papal document setting forth a major teaching that holds much weight but is not necessarily considered infallible. This term was derived from a Greek word meaning “circular” and was used because the pope would circulate the letter... more (official letter) with an attached Syllabus of Errors(A.D. 1864) Pope Pius IX publishes the Syllabus of Errors, which denounce many modern beliefs such as freedom of religion. more where he declared most aspects of modernity to be an anathema to true Christianity, including freedom of religion, freedom of the press, and the sovereignty of the people. Then, in 1869 he called the First VaticanAn independent city-state within the broader city of Rome. Vatican City is ruled by the Pope, the Catholic Bishop of Rome and head of the Catholic Church. more Council, where the bishops for the first time officially confirmed a long-standing belief that the popeThe Roman Catholic bishop of Rome who is regarded as the successor of the chief apostle, Peter, and as the Vicar of Christ is the holder of the Apostolic See and head of Christ’s church on earth. more was infallible when he speaks in his official capacity, ex cathedraAn official papal declaration that is deemed infallible. See cathedra. more. A few years later in 1879, Pope Leo XIII sent out an encyclicalrefers to a papal document setting forth a major teaching that holds much weight but is not necessarily considered infallible. This term was derived from a Greek word meaning “circular” and was used because the pope would circulate the letter... more declaring that the traditional theology taught by Thomas Aquinas(c. A.D. 1225-1274) Dominican friar, teacher at the University of Paris, central figure of medieval scholasticism, and the most authoritative theologian of the Roman Catholic tradition; known for his use of Aristotelian philosophy and his conception of supernatural grace. more in the 13^th century was the correct basis for Catholic thought. In 1914 Pope Pius X decreed that Thomas Aquinas’ philosophy was beyond debate. On top of all this, in 1910, the Catholic Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more required all of its clergyconsists of the priest, ministers and pastors of Christian churches. In the medieval church this term referred to both regular priest who were monks subject to a rule (regula) of a monastic order and secular priest who were not monks... more and seminary professors to swear an Anti-Modernist oath. Regardless, debate continued within the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more and in 1962 the Catholic Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more convened the Second Vatican CouncilA.D. 1962–1965 The Second Vatican Council provides measures for reforms within the Roman Catholic Church and increased ecumenical offerings to non-Roman Catholic Christians. more which embraced modernity and ecumenicalcomes from a Greek word for “worldwide,” and refers to both ancient church councils representing the whole church as well to discussions during the past century between Roman Catholics, Protestants and Orthodox churches regarding unification of the various branches of... more principles.

The initial Catholic knee-jerk reaction to liberal ideas did not occur in a vacuum and mirrored the fundamentalist reaction in Protestantism. This was a continuation of a long-standing debate that came to a head during the Protestant Reformation(A.D. 1517) The Protestant Reformation begins as Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses, largely in response to the widespread abuses caused by the aggressive commercialization of indulgences. more. Protestants objected to the high regard the Catholic Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more gave to traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more and insisted that the sole arbiter of truth was the written word of God independent of traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more. The Catholics countered that the Bible can only be properly interpreted through the lens of traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more. They argued that ecclesiasticalFrom the Greek word ecclesia, meaning church or congregation and is used to refer to both separate Christian congregations and to the whole body of Christians. more authority had primacy over scripture because Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more authorities were the ones who selected which writings would be contained in the canonA Greek word for “rule” or “measuring rod”,and generally refers to those books which were authorized to be read in the early Church and which became the Bible by which all other writings and teaching are to be judged or... more of scripture to begin with. They also argued it would be too easy for unsophisticated people to err in interpreting scripture. They insisted that debate regarding the meaning of the word of God was best handled by educated clergyconsists of the priest, ministers and pastors of Christian churches. In the medieval church this term referred to both regular priest who were monks subject to a rule (regula) of a monastic order and secular priest who were not monks... more and theological experts in the halls of the universities. Allowing private interpretation by common people in the streets would open pandora’s box to all sorts of subjective ideas leading to doctrinal anarchy and moral decay. They maintained that custom and traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more developed by many learned holy men over centuries provided the best means to correctly understand the word of God. Additionally, when people undermined the authority of the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more, they subverted the authority of the state that kept society from falling into bedlam and chaos. Yet, the Protestant Reformation(A.D. 1517) The Protestant Reformation begins as Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses, largely in response to the widespread abuses caused by the aggressive commercialization of indulgences. more found traction among many segments of society. Finally, the Catholic Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more convened the Council of Trent(A.D. 1545–1563) The Roman Catholic council of bishops held in the city of Trent near the border Austria and Italy over two decades between 1543 and 1563 to respond to the Protestant Reformation. The council experiences numerous lengthy interruptions, but... more to address the issues raised by the Protestant Reformation(A.D. 1517) The Protestant Reformation begins as Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses, largely in response to the widespread abuses caused by the aggressive commercialization of indulgences. more. The Council mandated a number of reforms, but it reaffirmed the Church’s tenet that both traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more and scripture are authoritative.

This whole debate regarding authority and traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more seems strange to us in our modern world largely because Western culture was transformed by the ReformationA revolutionary religious movement during the 16th century Europe that initially sought to reform the Roman Catholic Church but led to the emergence of several groups breaking away for the Catholic church and establishing their own separate religions which came... more that infusedA term used in Catholic theology that is derived from the Latin word for “poured in” referring to the grace (love) of God that he pours into our hearts through the Holy Spirit (see Romans 5:5). This term is used... more it with an enhanced value of independence and individualism. Yet, with all of our individualistic and democratic ideas, we have largely lost sight of the value found in traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more. Traditions are the roots that nourish our homes and society from the depths of our heritage to provide stability and bring flavor into our lives. Even Martin LutherMartin Luther (A.D. 1483–1546) German theologian, pastor, professor at the University of Wittenberg, ex-monk, and founding figure of Protestantism. He was known for his doctrine of justification by faith alone and his insistence on distinguishing between Law and Gospel. more, who launched the attack on the authority of Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more, valued the creeds and Augustine’s writings. Even though Lutherans and Calvinists echoed the refrain of “scripture alone,” they turned to the respective writings of LutherMartin Luther (A.D. 1483–1546) German theologian, pastor, professor at the University of Wittenberg, ex-monk, and founding figure of Protestantism. He was known for his doctrine of justification by faith alone and his insistence on distinguishing between Law and Gospel. more and CalvinJohn Calvin (A.D. 1509-1564) French Protestant theologian who lived most of his adult life in Geneva. He was the most influential figure in Reformed theology and author of the Institutes, the most important systematic theology text of Protestantism. more for guidance to understand the meaning of the scriptures they prized. Both LutherMartin Luther (A.D. 1483–1546) German theologian, pastor, professor at the University of Wittenberg, ex-monk, and founding figure of Protestantism. He was known for his doctrine of justification by faith alone and his insistence on distinguishing between Law and Gospel. more and CalvinJohn Calvin (A.D. 1509-1564) French Protestant theologian who lived most of his adult life in Geneva. He was the most influential figure in Reformed theology and author of the Institutes, the most important systematic theology text of Protestantism. more were opposed to private interpretation of scripture and adamantly insisted that only their respective perspectives were the correct view. As an example, after LutherMartin Luther (A.D. 1483–1546) German theologian, pastor, professor at the University of Wittenberg, ex-monk, and founding figure of Protestantism. He was known for his doctrine of justification by faith alone and his insistence on distinguishing between Law and Gospel. more met with Calvin’s predecessor, ZwingliUlrich Zwingli (or Huldrych) (A.D. 1484–1531) Swiss pastor and theologian based in Zurich, a founding figure of the Reformed Protestant tradition, most famous for his low view of the Eucharist. more, in an effort to resolve their doctrinal differences, LutherMartin Luther (A.D. 1483–1546) German theologian, pastor, professor at the University of Wittenberg, ex-monk, and founding figure of Protestantism. He was known for his doctrine of justification by faith alone and his insistence on distinguishing between Law and Gospel. more refused to shake his hand and later asserted that ZwingliUlrich Zwingli (or Huldrych) (A.D. 1484–1531) Swiss pastor and theologian based in Zurich, a founding figure of the Reformed Protestant tradition, most famous for his low view of the Eucharist. more was an agent of the Devil.

It is human nature for communities to sustain authority and the value of traditions, so it should be no surprise to realize that these tendencies are found in nearly all religions. We also generally undervalue the positions of others that do not concur with our own opinions. Today, most Christians doubt that anyone can infallibly speak for God, yet they don’t question that it was God’s pattern in the Bible to speak authoritatively through prophets and apostles. Catholics and members of the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) who believe that at times their leaders speak for God are not really all that different from most Christians who value what the founders and leaders of their particular religious traditions have to say. Most people who attend church on Sunday go to hear the word of God spoken through the voice of their minister. Even when we do not fully accept the direction from God’s purported mouthpieces and the wisdom of the ages as absolute truth, traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more and instruction assist us in identifying issues and seeing different points of view, which invariably informs and enhances the quality of our personal beliefs. Individuals evaluate the veracity of various positions and electcomes from the Latin word “to choose” and is used to identify those chosen by God. In the Old Testament, the twelve tribes of Israel are the elect people of God; in many Protestant traditions the elect refers to those... more to follow those ideas that make sense to them, typically based on today’s primary standard of truth, reason.

IV. Reason

The tension between authority and reason is not new. It did not just spring into existence during the Age of EnlightenmentA broad term for 18th century European intellectual developments, including deism and other movements critical of orthodox Christianity, that are characteristically modern, emphasizing reason against tradition and authority. Refers to the period of intellectual and cultural development in Europe and... more. Records of this conflict go as far back as the early classical Greek period when the father of Greek philosophy, Socrates(470–399 B.C.). Socrates is credited with being the father of philosophy because he taught that the individual must begin by first examining himself. He challenged many assumptions and insisted on defining terms at the beginning of a debate in order... more, willingly accepted death rather than deny the truths that he believed. One of the fundamental principles of Greek philosophy that infusedA term used in Catholic theology that is derived from the Latin word for “poured in” referring to the grace (love) of God that he pours into our hearts through the Holy Spirit (see Romans 5:5). This term is used... more Western culture for millennia was a quest to live a rational life.

Many people do not realize that the tension between authority and reason became a major issue in the middle ages. During the 11^th century, the French theologian, Berengar of Tours, created a stir by emphasizing the importance of logic and reason when discussing religious concepts. This upset Cardinal PeterPeter (c. A.D. 1–65) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles. Peter was a critical witness to many events in Jesus’ life and took on a leadership role after the death of Jesus... more Damian because he felt Berengar was undermining the authority of the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more. Eventually, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Landfranc of Bec, carried the day with his centrist position. Landfranc pointed out that God has given humans a rational mind and God expects us to use it. Yet, he said, there are some truths that are so clear and fundamental that they are beyond the realm of debate. Landfranc’s protégé, Anselm(c. 1033–1109 A.D.) Monk, then abbot of Bec in Normandy, then archbishop of Canterbury (1093–1109); the first great medieval theologian of the West who is famous for his account of how Christ’s death made satisfaction for human sin in the... more, embraced Berengar’s dialectic approach of using logic to determine the winning argument to theological disputes, and is often credited with being the father of scholastic theology. To this day, people use Anselm’s statement of “belief seeking understanding” as the definition of theology. Over the next few centuries scholars rediscovered the teachings of AristotleAristotle (384–322 B.C.) was a greek philosopher, founder of the sciences of logic, physics, and biology, whose writings were a major conceptual resource for medieval scholastic theologians, especially Aquinas. He studied under Plato, and in turn educated Alexander the Great.... more, with its rules of logic and categories of forms, that shaped theological discussion up to the Protestant Reformation(A.D. 1517) The Protestant Reformation begins as Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses, largely in response to the widespread abuses caused by the aggressive commercialization of indulgences. more in the 16^th century. This heady scholasticismRefers to the rational approach to theology that dominated Roman Catholic ideas in the High and Late Middle Ages that developed in the universities in contrast with the more devotional form of theology found in the monasteries during the early... more was a favorite target of Martin LutherMartin Luther (A.D. 1483–1546) German theologian, pastor, professor at the University of Wittenberg, ex-monk, and founding figure of Protestantism. He was known for his doctrine of justification by faith alone and his insistence on distinguishing between Law and Gospel. more, yet within 150 years of Luther’s death, Lutheran ministers were trained using a similar scholastic method. We often forget that LutherMartin Luther (A.D. 1483–1546) German theologian, pastor, professor at the University of Wittenberg, ex-monk, and founding figure of Protestantism. He was known for his doctrine of justification by faith alone and his insistence on distinguishing between Law and Gospel. more himself also relied on reason in his famous defense when he refused to recant, stating, “Unless I am convinced by Scripture and plain reason.” Landfranc was right, humans have a rational mind, and we will invariably use it.

One of the defining characteristics of the Modern Age is the elevated position we give to reason and its child, science. Western culture today generally views science as the ultimate source of truth. Everything is measured against this standard to determine its veracity. If something does not make sense to the rational mind it is summarily dismissed. Yet, just as during the Age of EnlightenmentA broad term for 18th century European intellectual developments, including deism and other movements critical of orthodox Christianity, that are characteristically modern, emphasizing reason against tradition and authority. Refers to the period of intellectual and cultural development in Europe and... more, people realize that something is missing when we rely solely on rational thought. An increasing number of individuals today feel lost in this rational world and seek a connection with an ethereal realm. Just as the Romanticists sought meaning and connection with the infinite through the arts, people today instinctively realize that there is more to being human than just our rational mind. We have feelings. Indeed, as much as we honor reason as the final arbiter of truth, in reality our emotions are what generally drive our actions.

V. Emotional Experience

Religion is a matter of the heart. The emphasis on an emotional connection with the divine in the pietist, evangelicalComes from the Greek term, evangelion, and means good news or the Gospel. This term was use in the 16th century to refer to Protestants and is still used this way in Germany to this day. In England and the... more and PentecostalA modern evangelical movement named after the day of Pentecost when there was an outpouring of the Holy Spirit. Its distinctive characteristics involve extensive influence of the Holy Spirit including the speaking in tongues (glossolalia) which acts as evidence of... more movements, was not new. From the beginning of Christianity its believers asserted claims that they had experienced the influence of ultimate power, the Holy Spirit of God himself. Indeed, the two primary claims of the early Christians were that Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more had resurrected in bodily form and that God’s spirit had changed their lives. They boldly proclaimed that God had lifted them out of a state of sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more to a state of peace, joy and righteousness, and that this blessed state was available to all believers. It was not simply something that they could hope for in some distant future after death, but it was something believers could experience now, in the present. They testified that this power of conversionThis term is derived from the Latin word for “turning,” and is a theological term that refers to one turning his will from evil to good and is generally used to denote one becoming a Christian and/or joining a particular... more was not due to some internal source of power, which today we would refer to as auto-suggestion or self-hypnosis, but it was due to a power outside themselves that rested upon them. Those who struggled with vices were empowered to live virtuous lives. Some with physical ailments were miraculously healed. They saw themselves as being united with God, that his spirit was inside them, infusing them with the power to endure temptation and horrific persecution. They became devoted witnesses of their spiritual experience. The original Greek word for martyr actually meant witness, and many of Christian martyrs made the ultimate witness with their lives.

Why would anyone do something so irrational as willingly die for the far-fetched idea that a man had resurrected from the dead and that he had shared his power with his followers to change their lives? This is the question many Romans asked themselves as they watch Christian martyrs willingly and serenely accept death in the arena. Tertullian(c. A.D. 160–225) North African priest and theologian, the first major Latin Christian author. Despite the large number of his writings that have survived, his influence was limited because at the end of his life he joined the Montanist heresy. more, an early Christian apologist said, “The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more.” This illogical scene of persons from all classes of life conquering the most intense human instinct―survival―was such a dramatic contrast to their world founded on reason that it provoked many persons to investigate the source of this power, and then become converted themselves.

Humans cannot exist in a state of cognitive dissonance where our beliefs do not jive with undisputed facts. We will either change our belief, dispute the facts or concoct some means to reconcile the two. Consequently, the martyrs’ ultimate testimony of their beliefs elicited examination by many observers. Many of them discovered an emotional conversionThis term is derived from the Latin word for “turning,” and is a theological term that refers to one turning his will from evil to good and is generally used to denote one becoming a Christian and/or joining a particular... more experience that defied reason. Christians today often testify of feeling this same transformative power from the spiritual realm. They assert that spiritual things can only be understood through spiritual eyes that are opened by the healing touch of God, and they continue to invite unbelievers to also experience this converting power.

VI. Moral Results

One of the primary ways Christians through the ages have borne witness to the truth of their beliefs has been through living moral lives. Subscribing to a higher code of ethics than society in general has been a common characteristic of devote Christians throughout history. They strive to follow Jesus’s teachings in the Sermon on the MountA sermon by Jesus Christ early in his ministry in which he sets out the basic standards of the Christian life and discipleship. more to let their light shine through good works and to function as leaven to raise the morals of their community. An anonymous 2nd or early 3rd century apologetic epistle called The Letter to Diognetus asserts that, “What the soul is to the body, that the Christians are to the world.” The ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more theologian, Karl BarthKarl Barth (A.D. 1886-1968) Swiss Reformed pastor and professor, founding figure of Neo Orthodoxy and probably the most influential Protestant theologian of the 20th century. He was known for a Christocentric theology highly critical of Protestant liberalism. more, who Pope Pius XII called the greatest theologian since Thomas Aquinas(c. A.D. 1225-1274) Dominican friar, teacher at the University of Paris, central figure of medieval scholasticism, and the most authoritative theologian of the Roman Catholic tradition; known for his use of Aristotelian philosophy and his conception of supernatural grace. more in the Middle Ages, taught that Christians have been chosen by God to bless all of the nations of the earth in fulfillment of God’s covenant with AbrahamAbraham (c. 1800 B.C.) The founding figure of the world’s three monotheistic religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. He is the first person in recorded history to introduce into a polytheistic world the concept of one true God, however the Bible... more (see Gal 3:8). Living moral lives and serving others are fundamental attributes of being a true Christian.

Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more taught that the whole lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more was based on the two great commandments to loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more God and our neighbor, (see Matt 22:36-40) and that we should treat others as we would like to be treated. (Matt 7:12). He further taught that not everyone who professes his name will go to heaven, but those who do the will of God. He said that by their fruits we will know them (see Matt 7:16-23), and the fruits of the Spirit are loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more, joy, peace, longsuffering, gentleness, goodness, faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more, meekness, and temperance. (see Gal 5:22-23). Pure religion includes visiting the fatherless and widows in their affliction and keeping oneself unspotted by the world. (see James 1:5). One should be able to see the effect of God’s influence on a Christian through their actions. Consequently, one method of evaluating the efficacy of doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more is through the affect it has on those who subscribe to its tenets.

Early Christians believed that right thinking led to right actions, which led to right standing with God, or in other words, justificationThis term comes from the root Latin word “jus” meaning law or right and “Justus” meaning justice. The words “justification” and “righteous” are different translation of the same Latin word and literally means “becoming just.” The central issue of the... more and righteousness. That is why the early Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more Fathers stressed the importance of orthodoxy, which legacy has remained a cultural priority of Christianity through the ages. Christianity has been subject to greater theological disputes than most other world religions because of this emphasis on teaching correct doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more. Unfortunately, too often these disputes led to unchristian behavior. We see this distressing result during the formation of the creeds with their Christological disputes, during the inquisitions, and the European wars of religion. In far too many cases, the cure was worse than the disease.

During the ReformationA revolutionary religious movement during the 16th century Europe that initially sought to reform the Roman Catholic Church but led to the emergence of several groups breaking away for the Catholic church and establishing their own separate religions which came... more movement Catholics criticized Protestants for their doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more on free graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more, which Catholics alleged gave license to decadent behavior. Even Martin LutherMartin Luther (A.D. 1483–1546) German theologian, pastor, professor at the University of Wittenberg, ex-monk, and founding figure of Protestantism. He was known for his doctrine of justification by faith alone and his insistence on distinguishing between Law and Gospel. more, who felt that this doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more would liberate the masses to more freely perform good deeds, was appalled by the lack of morals displayed by many of his professed followers. On the other hand, Puritans who tried to show through their good works that they were the electcomes from the Latin word “to choose” and is used to identify those chosen by God. In the Old Testament, the twelve tribes of Israel are the elect people of God; in many Protestant traditions the elect refers to those... more of God, and some Mormons who feel that they need to prove their worthiness, gravitate to an ego-centric rather than a Christ-centered orientation, which in turn invites the twin dysfunctions of pride and anxiety. Both extremes create a risk of adherents missing the mark. True doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more promotes moral values by helping people turn to God by recognizing how great God is and how deficient they are, yet simultaneously increasing their assurance of salvation as they seek Him, which produces overwhelming feelings of joy, gratitude, loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more for God, peace, security, compassion and understanding that inspire believers to become better persons.

VII. Balanced Approach

Most Christians use some if not all of these various approaches to determine truth. Different individuals and traditions give greater weight to particular approaches over others, but they all generally play a role in our search for truth. There is virtue in finding balance between all of these various approaches that we have discussed. Pursuing each of these approaches will open the door to God and invite him to lift us up to become unified with the divine. As we strive to recognize our biases based on our worldview, we open our eyes wider to see a much broader panorama of reality than our previous myopic perspective allowed. As we search the word of God, we learn to recognize His voice so that we can rely on Him instead of just on what someone else interprets God’s word to say. Yet, there is great benefit in learning the wisdom of the ages and the truths that devoted and inspired people want to share. We are rational creatures created in God’s image and he expects us to use his divine gift, our minds, in our quest for truth. Yet, God usually speaks to us through our feelings. He calls us to repent through our conscienceDerived from Latin and literally means “shared knowledge” such as an accomplice to a crime. Modern usage of this term developed out of the practice of private confession in Catholicism in the late Middle Ages. The concept of conscience was... more. He inspires us with feelings of hope when all else fails. He protects us from harm through intuition. Divine truth always produces good fruit: loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more, joy, unity, kindness, peace, compassion. As we seek these things, we will find God.

As we proceed with our study of the history of Christianity, we will become more aware of how our predecessors in all traditions struggled to find truth through these various approaches. Hopefully, we will learn from their successes and failures how to hone our skills to discover truth and find God. As we learn from these seekers of truth from different religious persuasions, we hopefully will become more understanding of others and less judgmental. In this pluralistic world, these benefits are certainly worth pursuing.

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