Synopsis

Polytheism

Let’s explore polytheism at the time of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more beginning with Hinduism, the earliest recorded world religion, with its core beliefs in: 1) the lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more of karmaA core belief of most Eastern religions that eternal justice is realized through a process where one’s actions directly relate to one’s future station in the eternal cycle of death and rebirth. more; 2) the cycle of existence consisting of creation, dissolution and re-creation; and 3) potential release from the illusion of existence through reintegration with the ultimate reality or spiritual essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more. We then move on to Buddhism that broke off of Hinduism and many of Hinduism’s basic tenets, but denies the existence of any spiritual essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more. Buddhist theology is based on the premise that all existence is suffering which comes from desire, which leads to attachment to transient things. A Buddhists’ objective is to escape the cycle of transmigration through a release of all desire so that the flame of attachment can be extinguished to realize the peace and stillness of non-existence (“nirvanaThe ultimate goal in most Eastern religions referring to the end of the cycle of existence in the phenomenal world. This term in primarily associated with Buddhism, that teaches it is achieved through the extinction of the fire of life... more”). We will then move on to a brief review of Egyptian Paganism and Greco-Roman Paganism. We will end this section with a review of Zoroastrianism’s dualistic theology that acted as a bridge between eastern and western thought. Indeed, ZoroastrianismActed as a bridge between eastern and western thought. more had a much greater impact on western ideas than most people realize.

Greek Philosophy

We will then move on to see how Greek philosophical ideas formed the foundation of western society. Socrates(470–399 B.C.). Socrates is credited with being the father of philosophy because he taught that the individual must begin by first examining himself. He challenged many assumptions and insisted on defining terms at the beginning of a debate in order... more (Died 399) inspired his students with his method of inquiry to discover truth. Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more (428/423 – 348/347 BC), one of his students, formulated a systematic metaphysical philosophy that dominated western perspective of reality for over two millennia. His influence was so great that the renowned British mathematician and philosopher A.N. WhiteheadA.N. Whitehead, the renowned British mathematician and philosopher who observed, "The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that ot consists of a series of footnotes to Plato." more observed: “The safest general characterization of the European philosophical traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more.” He introduced the concept of an eternal realm of the ideal essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more or form of ideas and things in this material world. At the center was the form or essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more of all good and piety, the First Principle, the Good or the One, from which all else was derived. The unchanging concepts of math, the world, a horse, a circle, beauty, virtues―everything―always existed in the mind of the Good. This imperfect temporalIs a technical term used in theology referring to this mortal physical existence in time as opposed to eternal divine existence outside of time. more existence was fashioned from these eternal forms and is simply a reflection of this more real perfect intelligible world. This concept, referred to as realismThe predominate metaphysical position held by most theologians and philosophers during the Middle Ages that universals are real and not just an abstract idea in the human mind in contrast to nominalism that was introduced near the start of the... more, was the basis for understanding everything until the rise of nominalismIs the philosophical view that universals, such as beauty, are simply names or words that our minds attributes to these abstractions, in contrast to realism which holds these universals to be real. Nominalism is credited with being one of the... more nearly two thousand years later. Christian theologians adopted many of these Platonian ideas because they seemed to explain their doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more.

AristotleAristotle (384–322 B.C.) was a greek philosopher, founder of the sciences of logic, physics, and biology, whose writings were a major conceptual resource for medieval scholastic theologians, especially Aquinas. He studied under Plato, and in turn educated Alexander the Great.... more (384-322 BC), Plato’s student, agreed with many of Plato’s ideas but believed that these eternal forms did not exist in some nebulous eternal realm but was the essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more inside all created things that drew them to fulfill their respective purpose or good. Aristotle’s philosophy was more biological than Plato’s mathematical approach, and became the foundation of science until the Age of EnlightenmentA broad term for 18th century European intellectual developments, including deism and other movements critical of orthodox Christianity, that are characteristically modern, emphasizing reason against tradition and authority. Refers to the period of intellectual and cultural development in Europe and... more. The distinctive characteristic of humans was a rational mind, so our telos (ultimate purpose) was to use it to control our emotions and appetites in order to live a balanced life. Stoicism, which greatly influenced the Greco-Roman world including Christianity, was greatly influenced by Aristotle’s ideas.

PlotinusPlotinus (c. A.D. 204–270) was a philosopher born in Egypt under the Roman Empire. Plotinus followed the Platonic tradition, but adapted it with distinctly mystical or religious elements. In this form, it took on many similarities with Indian philosophy, but... more (204-270 A.D.) organized Plato’s and Aristotle’s teachings into a cohesive systematic worldview. At its center was the One or the Good, consisting of all good, which did not act and was not affected by anything, so it was without body, parts and passions. The next level was the Divine Mind out of which eternally flowed the world of forms. This world of forms was like the universe’s soul consisting of everything including each individual human. Plotinus’s system became known as Neo-PlatonismA strand of philosophy grounded in Platonic thought and which sought to synthesize Plato’s philosophy with multiple other increasingly influential views about the world, including Gnosticism, Christianity, and Judaism. Neo-Platonism thus took on a distinctly religious, or mystical, flavor. more which also influenced some Christians.

Jesus and His Jewish Roots

Much earlier, AbrahamAbraham (c. 1800 B.C.) The founding figure of the world’s three monotheistic religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. He is the first person in recorded history to introduce into a polytheistic world the concept of one true God, however the Bible... more and Moses(Died c. 1400 B.C.) Moses was a Hebrew prophet who led his people out of slavery in Egypt. He instituted the Mosaic Law consisting of both ritual and moral elements. Many Christians believe that this law is part of God’s... more introduced monotheism to recorded history. Unlike Plato’s First Principle, the Jewish God was a being who acted. Judaism also introduced the revolutionary idea that this one all-powerful God, the creator of the universe, would condescend to enter into a covenant with His people to be bound to bless them if they remembered Him and kept His moral lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more. Additionally, He extended mercy and provided the means for atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more when they strayed. The central location of this redemptive arrangement was the tabernacle, later the temple, where the presence of God was found in increasing levels as intensity the closer one approached the Holy of HoliesIs the most sacred place in the Israeli temples where the Ark of the Covenant was kept. more which contained the ark of the covenant. The ark contained the lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more written on stone tablets covered by the mercy seat, where God sat, above the lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more. After the last temple was destroyed in 70 A.D. and the Jewish people were scattered around the Greco-Roman world in what is known as the diaspora, the presence of God was found in the TorahThe foundation of Jewish beliefs that refers to the first five books of the Old Testament and is also referred to as the Law or the Pentateuch. In a broad sense, it refers to the entire Jewish tradition of learning... more (the five books of Moses(Died c. 1400 B.C.) Moses was a Hebrew prophet who led his people out of slavery in Egypt. He instituted the Mosaic Law consisting of both ritual and moral elements. Many Christians believe that this law is part of God’s... more known as the lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more). Rabbinical Judaism emerged as the study of TorahThe foundation of Jewish beliefs that refers to the first five books of the Old Testament and is also referred to as the Law or the Pentateuch. In a broad sense, it refers to the entire Jewish tradition of learning... more became the focus of worship. An allegorical understanding of TorahThe foundation of Jewish beliefs that refers to the first five books of the Old Testament and is also referred to as the Law or the Pentateuch. In a broad sense, it refers to the entire Jewish tradition of learning... more was influence by some Platonic ideas, particularly from Philo(c. 20 B.C.–A.D. 50) Jewish philosopher and exegete who used an allegorical method to interpret the scriptures that was influential on ancient Christian writers, especially in Alexandria. more of Alexandria who was a contemporary of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more.

Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more revolutionized the world with his new covenant (testament) based on loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more. He taught that God so loved the world that he sent his only begotten son (Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more) to redeem the world from sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more, and those who believed in him and followed him would participate in the life of God (Eternal Life). (JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more 3:14-21). He ordained twelve apostles to lead his followers. Before his crucifixion, he taught his disciples a new commandment to loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more one another (John 13:34) and prayed that they would be one with each other and with God as Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more and his Father were one in loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more (JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more 17:21-23, 26). After he died on the crossWas an agonizing method used by the Roman Empire to execute slaves, rebels and others major offender to the order of the empire. In fulfillment of prophecy, this was the means by which Christ was crucified. Even though some early... more, Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more rose from the dead and charged his apostles to preach the message of redemption and his resurrectionThe doctrine that Jesus’ spiritual essence was reunited with his physical body and that other humans will likewise live again with their spirit or soul reunited with their material body. This term does not refer to the doctrine of the... more to all the world (Matt. 28:18-20). They were true to this command and the movement grew, particularly after Paul(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 64) Apostle and early Christian missionary, whose letters are the earliest documents contained in the New Testament and thus the first extant writings in Christian theology. more was miraculously converted and spread this message to the gentile (non-Jewish) world. Paul(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 64) Apostle and early Christian missionary, whose letters are the earliest documents contained in the New Testament and thus the first extant writings in Christian theology. more taught that the graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more of God extended to all humans, that gentiles did not need to convert to Judaism in order to be Christian, and they could become fellow-citizens in the household of God by having faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more in ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more and being born again through baptismFrom a Greek word meaning “to immerse;” and is an initiatory ritual washing whereby one becomes a member of the Christian community. It involves various symbolic meanings including, cleansing, the death and resurrection of Christ, and a sinners death and... more.

Early Christian Controversies

This is generally referred to as Logos Christianity.This new Christian sect grew despite persecution and was eventually adopted as the state religion of the Roman Empire(27 B.C.) After a period of unrest and competing generals jockeying for power, Octavian, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, becomes the first official Emperor of Rome, being known as Augustus. Octavian’s rule initiated an approximately 200 year period of... more. As the religion grew, numerous splinter groups sprang up creating a crisis of orthodoxy. PlatonismThe philosophy of Plato and other systems derived therefrom. Platonism generally asserted the existence of abstract objects, or “forms”, which were thought to exist in a realm other than the physical world of external physical objects or the internal world... more influenced all of the various forms of Christianity, orthodoxDerived from a Greek term meaning “right belief” and also “right worship.” When the term is not capitalized it typically refers to teachings in Christian traditions that are not heretical. When capitalized it refers to the mainstream Christian tradition in... more and gnostic, in varying ways and degrees. The predominate orthodoxDerived from a Greek term meaning “right belief” and also “right worship.” When the term is not capitalized it typically refers to teachings in Christian traditions that are not heretical. When capitalized it refers to the mainstream Christian tradition in... more theology during the second and third century was a subordinationist view of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more being an intermediary between God the Father and humanity. This is generally referred to as Logos Christianity. It was replaced by Trinitarian Christianity as the orthodoxDerived from a Greek term meaning “right belief” and also “right worship.” When the term is not capitalized it typically refers to teachings in Christian traditions that are not heretical. When capitalized it refers to the mainstream Christian tradition in... more theology at the Council of Nicaea in 325 A.D.

Christological controversies regarding the incarnation of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more raged over the next hundred and twenty-five years until it was officially resolved at the Council of Chalcedona council held in Chalcedon in A.D. 451 to deal with the Nestorian controversy regarding the nature and incarnation of Christ. Some eastern churches objected to the conduct of the council and claimed that it was primarily a power struggle... more with some groups such as the CopticA branch of Christianity that was excluded from the Catholic and Orthodox traditions in the Council of Chalcedon in A.D. 451 that dealt with the incarnation of Christ. The Church in Alexandria, Egypt, that based on credible legend was founded... more Christians in Egypt refusing to accept its decision. By then, the theology of Orthodox ChristianitySee orthodox. more in the East settled down to basically remain what it is today with its overarching goal of human deification through union with the Divine that is summed up in the ancient saying, “God became man so that men may become gods.” It also emphasized access to the life-giving flesh of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more through the veneration of icons of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more, Mary and the saintsIs a term used in the New Testament for Christian believers. In Roman Catholicism it refers to officially canonized, deceased holy men and women who can intercede with God on behalf of ordinary men and women and whose ascension to... more, where one could see the Light of Tabor, referring to the light shining from Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more on the Mount of TransfigurationRefers to the event referenced in the Synoptic Gospels when Jesus’ image was transformed by a glorious light in view of Peter, James and John on a mountain, See Light of Tabor. more.

Augustine

However, in the west, Christian theology continued to evolve with significant developments from the teachings of Augustine(A.D. 354-430) Bishop of Hippo in North Africa, the most influential theologian of the West, known especially for his doctrine of grace, including related doctrines of original sin and predestination. more of Hippo (354-430). The goal shifted from becoming like God to seeing God, which is referred to as beatific visionA Catholic concept advocated by Augustine related to seeing the essence of God with your mind’s eye, which is the ultimate goal of human existence. The term “beatific” refers to the bliss or ultimate happiness that one realizes in comprehending... more. Since Augustine(A.D. 354-430) Bishop of Hippo in North Africa, the most influential theologian of the West, known especially for his doctrine of grace, including related doctrines of original sin and predestination. more, the goal in western Christianity has been to be saved in order to go to heaven and see God. Sin and justificationThis term comes from the root Latin word “jus” meaning law or right and “Justus” meaning justice. The words “justification” and “righteous” are different translation of the same Latin word and literally means “becoming just.” The central issue of the... more became major issues in the west along with Augustine’s doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of original sinThe doctrine developed by Augustine in the late 4th century that all human beings inherit the guilt of Adam’s sin and deserve damnation from birth. This is more than simply being born with a corrupt sinful nature that later leads... more, which to this day is not accepted in the eastern Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more. The interplay between graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more, works and predestinationThe Augustinian doctrine that God bestows the grace of salvation on some individuals while assigning others to hell, independent of human choice or actions. This concept was shared by Aquinas, Luther, and John Calvin, with Calvin emphasizing and expanding it... more became deep doctrinal issues that have been debated in the western Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more to this day.

Medieval Developments

Monasticism has been the major force in the development of Christian theology since the third century. One of the most influential monks was Anselm(c. 1033–1109 A.D.) Monk, then abbot of Bec in Normandy, then archbishop of Canterbury (1093–1109); the first great medieval theologian of the West who is famous for his account of how Christ’s death made satisfaction for human sin in the... more, Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 to 1109, who introduced the concept of the substitutionary theory of Christ’s atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more, which has been largely followed in the west ever since. Around this same time, PeterPeter (c. A.D. 1–65) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles. Peter was a critical witness to many events in Jesus’ life and took on a leadership role after the death of Jesus... more AbelardPeter Abelard (A.D. 1079–1142) was a preeminent logician and theologian who firmly fixed the tradition of scholasticism, the attempt to provide a formal, rational expression to received ecclesiastical doctrines. His writing regarding Christ’s atonement help form the basis for the... more (1079-1142) formulated his theory of the moral influence theory of the atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more that later influenced the development of liberal Protestantism in the nineteenth century. However, the most renowned scholar of the middle-ages was Thomas Aquinas(c. A.D. 1225-1274) Dominican friar, teacher at the University of Paris, central figure of medieval scholasticism, and the most authoritative theologian of the Roman Catholic tradition; known for his use of Aristotelian philosophy and his conception of supernatural grace. more (1225-1274) whose teachings have repeatedly been declared by Popes as the correct Catholic philosophy.

During the late middle-ages, the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more increased its emphasis on its seven sacraments, especially the eucharist, as the means of bestowing graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more and not simply being symbols of graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more so that the wafer became an object of worship. Mary also increased in importance and the doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of her immaculate birth was introduced.

In the early 1300s, William of OckhamWilliam of Ockham (c. A.D. 1287–1347) was an English Friar, theologian, and scholastic. He is best known for the logical principle, Occam’s Razor – between two equally probably explanations, the explanation with the fewest assumptions is more likely to be... more (also Occam) (1285-1347) used his metaphysical razor to cut off Plato’s realismThe predominate metaphysical position held by most theologians and philosophers during the Middle Ages that universals are real and not just an abstract idea in the human mind in contrast to nominalism that was introduced near the start of the... more for being an excessive way to describe reality, allowing nominalismIs the philosophical view that universals, such as beauty, are simply names or words that our minds attributes to these abstractions, in contrast to realism which holds these universals to be real. Nominalism is credited with being one of the... more to take hold and grow to later become the predominate way to view the world. Near this same time, Miester EckhartMeister Eckhart (c. A.D. 1260-1327) Dominican priest and mystical theologian, the most prominent figure in German mysticism, whose teachings were under investigation for heresy at the time of his death. more (1260-1328) introduced his radical Christian mystical idea of the shared eternal origin of the spark or essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more of God and humans that even preceded the existence of God the Father, ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more and the Holy Spirit. JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more WycliffeJohn Wycliffe (Wyckuffe) (A.D. 1330–31 Dec 1384) is regarded as the first Christian Reformer. He was instrumental in translating the Bible into Old English, combated superstition in the Church, held the Bible to be the ultimate arbiter of religious truth, opposed... more (died 1384) started the Lollardy movement in the 14th century that denied transubstantiationRoman Catholic doctrine, developed in the 13th century, that the bread and wine literally changes to become the literal body and blood of Christ when the priest pronounces consecration of these elements during the Mass. Protestants reject the dogma of... more of the eucharist, stressed the importance of scripture, and rejected the system of the papacyThe office of pope in the Roman Catholic Church which is the highest office in its hierarchical structure. more that foreshadowed the Protestant Reformation(A.D. 1517) The Protestant Reformation begins as Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses, largely in response to the widespread abuses caused by the aggressive commercialization of indulgences. more. In the 15th century Jan Hus (1369-1415) not only concurred with Wycliffe’s writings but also attacked the legitimacy of indulgences and the Catholic practice of not offering wine to the congregation as part of the eucharist.

The Protestant Reformation

However, the greatest shakeup in Christianity occurred on All Saints Day, October 31, 1517 when Martin LutherMartin Luther (A.D. 1483–1546) German theologian, pastor, professor at the University of Wittenberg, ex-monk, and founding figure of Protestantism. He was known for his doctrine of justification by faith alone and his insistence on distinguishing between Law and Gospel. more (1483-1546) nailed his invitation to debate indulgences to the Cathedral’s door in WittenbergNorthern German town where Luther taught in its university from 1511 until his death and where the Protestant Reformation began and remained the center of Lutheran Reformation. more, Germany. Little did he realize that his epiphany regarding the distinction of lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more and gospel would split the western Church, leading to the ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more movement with it various divergent theologies. His main thesis claimed that we are saved by faith alone in the graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more of God, the fullness of the gospel is found in the Bible alone, and authority was found in a priesthood of all believers and not with the ordained officials of the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more. He emphasized that Christians should believe and hold onto the promise of graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more that was conferred through the sacraments such as baptismFrom a Greek word meaning “to immerse;” and is an initiatory ritual washing whereby one becomes a member of the Christian community. It involves various symbolic meanings including, cleansing, the death and resurrection of Christ, and a sinners death and... more and the eucharist.

Ulrich ZwingliUlrich Zwingli (or Huldrych) (A.D. 1484–1531) Swiss pastor and theologian based in Zurich, a founding figure of the Reformed Protestant tradition, most famous for his low view of the Eucharist. more (1484-1531) started the Reformed ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more movement in Switzerland that concurred with much of Luther’s new doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more except ZwingliUlrich Zwingli (or Huldrych) (A.D. 1484–1531) Swiss pastor and theologian based in Zurich, a founding figure of the Reformed Protestant tradition, most famous for his low view of the Eucharist. more claimed the eucharist did not contain the actual flesh of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more but was only a symbol, and he took a more austere approach in implementing their beliefs. JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more CalvinJohn Calvin (A.D. 1509-1564) French Protestant theologian who lived most of his adult life in Geneva. He was the most influential figure in Reformed theology and author of the Institutes, the most important systematic theology text of Protestantism. more (1509-1564) followed a generation later with his book, The Institutes of the Christian Religion, that methodically laid out the theology of the Reformed branch of ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more theology. His major contributions were the doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of double predestinationis a view of predestination that God not only predestines some individuals to go to heaven but that he also predestines others to go to hell. This concept was arguably originated by Calvin but there are traces of this idea... more (everyone is predestined to either go to heaven or hell) and that those predestined to go to heaven could know that they were saved by having a born-again experience. The Reformed movement spread rapidly creating various new denominations such as Presbyterians in Scotland, Puritans, Baptists and Quakers(A.D. 1650) The Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as Quakers, form in England based on the preaching of George Fox. more.[glossary]

Early Modern Philosophers

[glossary]The secularOf the world in contrast to the divine. more side of society was not left behind by this revolution of religious ideas. In the mid-seventeenth century the young philosopher Baruch SpinozaBaruch Spinoza (A.D. 1632–1677) was a Jewish-Dutch philosopher. Spinoza employed many of the concepts of Medieval scholastics with the Cartesian method of reasoning to present a radically reformed concept of God and humanity’s relation to God. more (1632-1677) introduced doubt into western philosophical thought contributing to a crisis regarding the authority of traditional sources. SpinozaBaruch Spinoza (A.D. 1632–1677) was a Jewish-Dutch philosopher. Spinoza employed many of the concepts of Medieval scholastics with the Cartesian method of reasoning to present a radically reformed concept of God and humanity’s relation to God. more questioned the reality of the Judeo-Christian God as the creator of the world in favor the pantheistic idea that God is part of the physical world. This doubt fomented and soon afterwards, the French philosopher Rene DescartesRene Descartes (1596–1650) introduced the scientific method based on the premise that all learning is derived from inductive reasoning based on observations. more (1596-1650) introduced one of the most distinctive perspectives of the modern worldview, individualism, when he declared, “I think, so I am.” Certainty was found in the individual, not some arcane treatise from antiquity.

Francis BaconFrancis Bacon (A.D. 1561–1626) was an English philosopher and prominent statesman. He was later considered to have been the father of the scientific method. Francis Bacon also outlined a series of legal reforms which eventually became the foundation of the... more (1561-1626) introduced the scientific method based on the premise that all learning is derived from inductive reasoning based on observations. Sir Isaac NewtonSir Isaac Newton (1643–1727) revolutionized society's understanding of how the physical world functioned with his scientific discoveries and by claiming that god created the universe with immutable physical laws and then stepped back to let it run itself. more (1643-1727) revolutionized society’s understanding of how the physical world functioned with his scientific discoveries and by claiming that God created the universe with immutable physical laws and then stepped back to let it run itself. JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more LockeJohn Locke (1632–1704) applied the scientific method of using empirical observations to determine the strength of philosophical and theological ideas. more (1632-1704) applied the scientific method of using empirical observations to determine the strength of philosophical and theological ideas. David(c. 1000 B.C.) David is known for killing the giant Goliath when he was a young shepherd and later when he was king of Israel expanding the territory and glory of the kingdom. He wrote a number of the poetic... more HumeDavid Hume (1711–1776) used John Locke's standard to declare that it would take a miracle to believe a miracle. more (1711-1776) used Locke’s standard to declare that it would take a miracle to believe a miracle. The Age of EnlightenmentA broad term for 18th century European intellectual developments, including deism and other movements critical of orthodox Christianity, that are characteristically modern, emphasizing reason against tradition and authority. Refers to the period of intellectual and cultural development in Europe and... more was born with skepticism of all prior authority but with new optimism based on freedom, the value of individuals and human ability. Deism became the modern religion of the age. Deism rejected miracles and the established religions with their rites and creeds in favor or a generic natural religionRefers to a religion developed during the Enlightenment based on reason in contrast to revelation, i.e. “positive” religion such as Judaism and traditional Christianity. Its proponents believed that the true universal religion consisted of Judeo-Christian moral teachings stripped of non-rational... more of a creator who did not interfere with world but rewarded good behavior in the afterlife.

The Turn to Emotions

In the late seventeenth century, Philipp Jakob SpenerPhilip Jakob Spener (A.D. 1635–1705) German Lutheran pastor who became one of the founders of Pietism when, in 1675, he published Pia Desideria (“Pious Desires”), calling for reform of the Lutheran church. more (1635-1705), a German Lutheran theologian, became concerned with the dry scholasticismRefers to the rational approach to theology that dominated Roman Catholic ideas in the High and Late Middle Ages that developed in the universities in contrast with the more devotional form of theology found in the monasteries during the early... more found in the Lutheran church of his day and the allure of the skepticism found outside the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more. After he had a life changing spiritual experience, he founded what became known as pietism, stressing increased piety through an emotional connection with God. The MoraviansAre members of a Protestant group who fled persecution in the 1720s and settled in an area in modern-day Czech Republic known at that time as Moravia. Their theology focuses on the incarnation of Christ and his suffering. They engage... more, a Lutheran spinoff religion, led by Count, Nikolaus Ludwig, Graf von Zinzendorf (1700-1760), was involved with this pietist movement and left a much greater legacy on the developments of Christian theology than most people realize. MoraviansAre members of a Protestant group who fled persecution in the 1720s and settled in an area in modern-day Czech Republic known at that time as Moravia. Their theology focuses on the incarnation of Christ and his suffering. They engage... more stressed a deep emotional connection with the humanity of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more. The MoraviansAre members of a Protestant group who fled persecution in the 1720s and settled in an area in modern-day Czech Republic known at that time as Moravia. Their theology focuses on the incarnation of Christ and his suffering. They engage... more instigated a major missionary effort that spread around the world. The legacy of this now nearly forgotten religion is found in the liberal theology of established ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more religions and in the evangelicalComes from the Greek term, evangelion, and means good news or the Gospel. This term was use in the 16th century to refer to Protestants and is still used this way in Germany to this day. In England and the... more movement.

In the eighteenth century, the American Anglican priest, Jonathan EdwardsJonathan Edwards (A.D. 1703-1758) Puritan minister, Calvinist theologian, the first American theorist of revival, and leader of the Great Awakening in New England. more (1703-1758), sparked a revival and the first great awakening in with his direct, thoughtful sermons which demanded that his audience make a choice to accept Christ or suffer in hell. George Whitefield(A.D. 16 Dec 1714–30 Sep 1770) George Whitefield was an ordained Anglican clergy who became one of the most popular Evangelist preachers during the 18th Century in both England and America. He often preached outside to thousands of listeners and... more (1714-1770) added a dynamic presentation to this approach and held throngs of thousands of bystanders captivated for hours in open-air locations throughout England and the Americas.

After the young Anglican priest, JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more Wesley(A.D. 1703–1791) Anglican priest, revival preacher and organizer, and together with his brother Charles, a founding figure of Methodism, whose theology combines Arminianism and Pietism and is known for a strong emphasis on sanctification, including the expectation that believers will... more (1703-1791), and his brother Charles travelled to America as missionaries, JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more was shocked to see MoraviansAre members of a Protestant group who fled persecution in the 1720s and settled in an area in modern-day Czech Republic known at that time as Moravia. Their theology focuses on the incarnation of Christ and his suffering. They engage... more on deck of their ship in the midst of a treacherous storm singing and praising God while he trembled in fear. He stayed in contact with the Moravian movement after returning to England and experienced the life altering power of God’s graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more at one of their meetings. Afterwards he followed his friend George Whitefield’s example and breached God’s loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more and graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more to the outcasts of society in the fields where they lived. His movement and methodical approach became the Methodist religion, out of which sprang the holiness movement that taught that a believer could experience perfectionIn Christian theology it refers to the Protestant (chiefly Methodist) doctrine and the Holiness tradition that entire sanctification (Holiness and perfection) is not only possible but standard for believers. more here and now by surrendering their all to God, which movement became instrumental to the creation of Pentecostalism and twentieth century evangelicalismHistorically this term refers the religious movement beginning in the 18th century that emphasized conversion that was often communicated through revivals and to the religious traditions that grew out of that movement (typically Methodist and various branches of Calvinism and... more which has now become mainstream Protestantism. The separation of church and state in the United States led to a proliferation of religious options and a second great awakening led primarily by independent Wesleyan route preachers and revivals on the frontier in the early nineteenth century.

Immanuel Kant and the 19th Century Revolution in Religious Ideas

Back in Europe, Immanuel Kant(A.D. 1724–1804) German thinker generally recognized as the greatest philosopher of the modern period. He revolutionized modern epistemology with the argument that the mind is active in shaping our experience. He argued that we can think, but not know God... more (1724–1804) developed the most renowned and influential philosophy of the modern period. He synthesized the two branches of philosophy at the time (rationalismIn epistemological it generally refers to the idea that reason is a way to gain knowledge and more specifically to the position that we can acquire knowledge without appealing to experience by reasoning deductively from first principles. more and empiricismrefers to the theory that true knowledge is based on experience. more) into one cohesive philosophy based on human understanding. He argued that science and religion are not incompatible because they both rest on the same foundation of individual human understanding. Hegel (1770-1831) was a very influential philosopher in his day and espoused a philosophy based on historical consciousness that reflected the optimist colonization attitude of his day. He believed that the ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more modern industrial world was the apex of human and divine development.

The Romanic philosopher and theologian, Friedrich SchleiermacherFriedrich Schleiermacher (A.D. 1768–1834) German theologian and philosopher, minister in the Reformed church, professor at the University of Berlin (A.D. 1811–1834), and founding figure of Protestant liberalism. He was the most influential Protestant thinker of the 19th century. In response... more (1768-1834), introduced liberal theology that said humans can connect with the infinite through their emotions, and that one can access God’s consciousness through knowledge of Jesus’s exemplary life. He wrote the influential book, On Religion: Speeches to Its Cultured Despisers, to his intellectual friends in the Romanic period to help them understand that the emotions they felt from their involvement in the arts was actually a religious experience. David(c. 1000 B.C.) David is known for killing the giant Goliath when he was a young shepherd and later when he was king of Israel expanding the territory and glory of the kingdom. He wrote a number of the poetic... more Strauss(A.D. 1808–1874) David Friedrich Strauss was a German Protestant theologian. Strauss influence European Christianity with his writings on a “historical Jesus”, whose divine nature he denied. more (1808-1874) wrote his controversial book, The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined, that used scholarly tools to show that Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more was a historical personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more, but not divine. The search of the historical Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more became an important element of liberal theology.

Around this same time, Joseph Smith(A.D. 1805–1844) Joseph Smith, Jr. was an American religious leader who published the Book of Mormon and founded the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (commonly referred to as “Mormon”). His followers considered him to be a prophet similar... more (1805-1844) Published the Book of Mormon and founded the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more of Jesus ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more of Latter-day Saints before he was twenty-five years old. In spite of relentless persecution, he led his growing number of followers to form various communities including one of the largest and most modern cities west of the Appalachians before he was assassinated at age 39. He introduced several revolutionary theological concepts including: The shared eternal nature of divine and human existence. The covenant theory of the atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more. The shared essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more of spirit and physical element. Priesthood authority and temple work. The paradox that this imperfect world is God’s perfect plan for our growth and development.

The Danish theologian, philosopher and social critic, Soren Kierkegaard(A.D. 1813–1855) Danish philosopher and theologian, critic of Hegelianism and modernist Christianity. Kierkegaard mocked the rationalist faith of Enlightenment thinkers and Hegel and stressed instead the faith of the passionate individual. He adapts Hegel’s dialectic to describe the role of... more (1813-1855), challenged the religious ideas of his day that used reason or emotions to prove the existence of God. Instead, he stressed the necessity of a leap of faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more.

Masters of Suspicion

Ludwig Feuerbach(A.D. 28 Jul 1804–13 Sep 1872) Ludwig Andreas von Feuerbach was a German philosopher who is often referred to as the first master of suspicion who greatly influenced subsequent skeptics like Karl Marx, Nietzsche, and Freud. He believed that the... more (1804-1872) doubted the existence of any divine influence and said that man created God in man’s image. His ideas greatly influenced Karl Marx (1818-1883) who said that religion was the product of a false consciousnessThe idea that individuals delude themselves based on underlying cultural and social relationships. Marx introduced the concept to describe a form of self-deception caused by unfair economic relationships. more and simply served as opium for the masses to help them forget their pathetic state. Consequently, religion needed to be eliminated so that individuals would be able to recognize that the solution to all their problems was found through an egalitarian economic system that would only be possible by overthrowing the current capitalist system.

Charles Darwin’s (1809-1882) treatise, On the Origin of the Species, sent shock waves throughout modern society by providing a scientific explanation for the origin of the various species of life that did not require any divine involvement. The German philosopher, Friedrich NietzscheFriedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), declared that God is dead, and the intellectuals of his day had killed him. With the death of God, nihilism was born. more (1844-1900), declared that God is dead, and the intellectuals of his day had killed him. With the death of God, nihilism was born. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was greatly influenced by Nietzsche’s ideas and claimed that religion was an illusion, the “universal obsessional neurosisIn psychoanalysis developed by Freud, it refers to the expression of an unconscious psychic conflict through mental or physical disturbances. more of humanity.” (Freud, The Future of an Illusion, pg 55, 1927).

20th Century Theologians

The ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more theologian, Karl BarthKarl Barth (A.D. 1886-1968) Swiss Reformed pastor and professor, founding figure of Neo Orthodoxy and probably the most influential Protestant theologian of the 20th century. He was known for a Christocentric theology highly critical of Protestant liberalism. more (1886-1968), has been called by Catholic and Protestants as the greatest theologian since Thomas Aquinas(c. A.D. 1225-1274) Dominican friar, teacher at the University of Paris, central figure of medieval scholasticism, and the most authoritative theologian of the Roman Catholic tradition; known for his use of Aristotelian philosophy and his conception of supernatural grace. more. BarthKarl Barth (A.D. 1886-1968) Swiss Reformed pastor and professor, founding figure of Neo Orthodoxy and probably the most influential Protestant theologian of the 20th century. He was known for a Christocentric theology highly critical of Protestant liberalism. more explains that if we start with the human part of the interaction with the divine, we will never reach God. He agrees with Kierkegaard(A.D. 1813–1855) Danish philosopher and theologian, critic of Hegelianism and modernist Christianity. Kierkegaard mocked the rationalist faith of Enlightenment thinkers and Hegel and stressed instead the faith of the passionate individual. He adapts Hegel’s dialectic to describe the role of... more that God gives humans the possibility of revelationThe divine disclosure to humans of future events, God’s will or his nature. more and the revelationThe divine disclosure to humans of future events, God’s will or his nature. more. He also provides a possibility of universal salvation. Gustavo Gutierrez(A.D. 1928–Present) Gustavo Gutierrez is a philosopher, theologian, and Dominican priest from Peru. He played a major role in the development of liberation theology which emphasizes concern for the poor and political liberation for the oppressed in a synthesis of... more (born 1928) combined Marxist ideas with theology to create what is known as Liberation TheologyRefers to a movement, primarily in Catholicism, that originated in Latin America in the 1960s that understands Christianity from the perspective of the poor and oppressed. more that conflates political liberation with religious salvations and emphasizes the role of religious institutions in liberating the poor from economic oppression.

We will be introduced to numerous other ancient, medieval, modern and post-modern philosophers and theologians who provide interesting and provocative ideas and how they influenced and were impacted by world events.

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Introduction

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The Human Quest for Meaning