The High Middle Ages and the Three Estates

The upheaval of European society after the fall of the Roman Empire had been a long and tumultuous transition period which by the year 1000, had basically settled into the medieval culture that continued to the modern era.

Geoffrey Chaucer’s fourteenth-century Canterbury Tales of a group of Christian pilgrims from all walks of life provides modern readers with a fascinating view of life in the Middle Ages.1 Except for the scattered Jewish communities, all of Europe had converted to Christianity and became what we refer to as Christendom. Even though diverse pagan beliefs and superstitions persisted in rural areas, they were intermixed with the ubiquitous Christian worldview based on the ideas of Christian salvation history, providenceThe word derived from the Latin word for “provide” and “foresee” that identifies the Medieval doctrine of God’s active benevolent sovereignty over all things and events in his creation, despite any appearance to the contrary. The universal belief in God’s... more and sacramentality. This Christian worldview informed all aspects of everyday life for commoner, nobility and clergyconsists of the priest, ministers and pastors of Christian churches. In the medieval church this term referred to both regular priest who were monks subject to a rule (regula) of a monastic order and secular priest who were not monks... more alike. Their time frame revolved around the liturgical calendar which consisted of major holy days, weekly mass, and daily remembrance of saintsIs a term used in the New Testament for Christian believers. In Roman Catholicism it refers to officially canonized, deceased holy men and women who can intercede with God on behalf of ordinary men and women and whose ascension to... more. No moment of time stood apart from God, and nothing in this temporalIs a technical term used in theology referring to this mortal physical existence in time as opposed to eternal divine existence outside of time. more existence was devoid of divine influence and spiritual meaning.

The European continent consisted of city-states, kingdoms, and territorial conglomerations, with the Holy Roman Empire(A.D. 962) The Holy Roman Empire emerges in the Germanic areas and Northern Italy with Otto I assuming the imperial crown descended from Charlemagne. more being the largest. This empire was not Roman but consisted of hundreds of different principalities and territories throughout central Europe with each maintaining a great level of autonomyA term that literally means to give yourself the law. This idea was central to Kant’s moral theory that reason gives itself the moral law. more. In the late medieval period, the rulers of seven of these various territories had the extra privilege of electing the emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more as their overlord. Throughout Europe, most of the actual governance occurred at the local level by the lord of the manor or the elected city council, which maintained a delicate relationship with the distant king or emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more based more on cooperation than on actual coercion.

Europe was a thinly populated agrarian society consisting of numerous small villages of a couple of hundred up to one thousand residents, at which point they developed more of the characteristics of urban life with shops and institutions such as monasteries, cathedrals, universities, secularOf the world in contrast to the divine. more administrative facilities, and castles for the nobility. Cities were not large. The population of most cities ranged from five thousand to ten thousand. Long gone were the large cities of the Roman Empire(27 B.C.) After a period of unrest and competing generals jockeying for power, Octavian, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, becomes the first official Emperor of Rome, being known as Augustus. Octavian’s rule initiated an approximately 200 year period of... more with populations of over one million residents supported by slaves who made up a third or more of the population. In the high Middle Ages, large cities like Paris and London only had around twenty to twenty-five thousand people. None of the cities in Christian Europe had a population that reached fifty thousand.2 Lack of sanitation was a major issue which played a role in limiting the size of these population centers.

Life was hard. It rightly merits Hobbe’s legendary quip, “Life is nasty, brutish and short.” Life expectancy was around 35 to 40 years. Infant mortality rate was between 30 to 50 percent, and of those who survived, only 40 to 50 percent would live to age ten.3 But, if a man survived to age twenty, it was likely that he would live into his sixties and beyond. Women, however, were not so fortunate. Maternal mortality rates may have been as high as 5 percent during childbirth with an additional 15 percent from related illnesses soon thereafter.4 Women would generally have a large number of pregnancies and there was about a 50 percent chance that they would die from one of them. Death, illness and suffering were frequent companions and part of every person’s life in the Middle Ages.

By the year 1000, one’s place in society was basically set at birth. The medieval world was fundamentally hierarchical. Husbands ruled their wives, lords ruled their serfs, and kings ruled the lords. Society consisted of three distinct classes: commoner, nobility and clergyconsists of the priest, ministers and pastors of Christian churches. In the medieval church this term referred to both regular priest who were monks subject to a rule (regula) of a monastic order and secular priest who were not monks... more on top. These three classes were referred to as the three estates or the estates of the realm and were set in stone except for some flexibility in regards to the clerical class. Each estate played a vital role in medieval life and its economyderived from the Greek term, oikonomia, for “steward” or “household management,” is a term used to describe a plan of salvation through Christ and is not to be confused with the current usage of this word.. In Eastern Orthodox theology,... more. One worked, one fought, and the other prayed. Everyone knew their rank and generally never attempted to step out of place. However, the seeds of discontent and tension leading to the Protestant Reformation(A.D. 1517) The Protestant Reformation begins as Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses, largely in response to the widespread abuses caused by the aggressive commercialization of indulgences. more five hundred years later can be traced back to this hierarchical structure of society.

Commoners consisted of agricultural laborers and artisans in the towns and cities along with their families. However, this was a feudal economyderived from the Greek term, oikonomia, for “steward” or “household management,” is a term used to describe a plan of salvation through Christ and is not to be confused with the current usage of this word.. In Eastern Orthodox theology,... more with 80 to 90 percent of the population involved in farming, and less than 10 percent of the population living in urban centers. The majority of the agricultural laborers were serfs who paid their lord with a percentage of their produce and were legally tied to the land. They could not just get up and move if they were dissatisfied. This obligation is traced back to 332 CE, when emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more issued an edict restricting the rights of the non-slave populace to leave the agricultural land they worked because of a shortage of slave labor. In our modern society which values individual freedom, it is hard to understand how this system would survive for over a millennium. The tradeoff, however, was security. A house and a livelihood to sustain them were the benefit. The serfs did not need to worry about earning enough money to pay rent on their homes as freemen had to do. The few freemen who existed had to pay the local lord with coins earned by selling produce at the market, which was very difficult because of the scarcity of currency.

The high Middle Ages were a prosperous time because of the climatic change referred to as the medieval warm period or the little optimum. The higher temperatures resulted in milder and shorter winters and more rain in the summer months, creating larger harvests. Farmers also increased their production by lowering the amount of land they left fallow each year from half to only a third. They were able to cultivate more land because of the invention of a yoke fitted to prevent a horse from choking like the prior yokes did, which were designed to be used by oxen. All of these factors led to a time of surplus and less arduous work. That all changed starting in 1346 with the advent of the bubonic plague, known as the black death, which devastated Europe and killed half the population.

The commoners in the cities typically lived above the shops where they sold their wares to people passing by on the busy streets. There was an elaborate guild system in place that controlled every aspect of production. For example, there were guilds for making different types and qualities of wool, dying the wool, weaving the wool, et cetera. The guilds policed the quality of goods produced by enforcing standards of workmanship. Starting around age seven or eight a young boy would become an apprentice learning every element of the production process. He would graduate to become a journeyman in his early teens, and if he were good enough, he could eventually become a master craftsman and have his own shop. Each step was monitored by the guild. The guilds also functioned like fraternities. They sponsored confraternitiesImportant and very popular lay mutual aid societies in the late medieval and early modern Catholic Europe that were organized for the spiritual and social support of its members. more that served as mutual aid societies for their members. These confraternitiesImportant and very popular lay mutual aid societies in the late medieval and early modern Catholic Europe that were organized for the spiritual and social support of its members. more were involved in the spiritual lives of their members as well, which later became a factor during the Protestant Reformation(A.D. 1517) The Protestant Reformation begins as Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses, largely in response to the widespread abuses caused by the aggressive commercialization of indulgences. more. Additionally, the guilds played a major role in the political life of the community by often selecting the members of the city council.

These artisans, merchants and professionals steadily grew in wealth to create an economic middle class in the cities. Over time, some of these craftsmen and merchants were able to leverage their time by having several workers underneath them, enabling them to amass wealth rivaling that of the nobility. Consequently, the nobles passed consummatory laws to keep these aspiring commoners in their place. These laws limited the quality and color of clothing a non-noble could wear and even the type and amount of food they could consume. Everyone had to know and stay in their predetermined God-given place.5

The nobility was the progeny of a warrior class who kept or acquired property by force during the transition period after the fall of the Roman Empire(27 B.C.) After a period of unrest and competing generals jockeying for power, Octavian, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, becomes the first official Emperor of Rome, being known as Augustus. Octavian’s rule initiated an approximately 200 year period of... more. These were the knights who fought the battles and, over generations, acquired territory as payment for their services or by simply controlling it. There were very few knights because it was expensive to acquire the armaments, horses and pages needed to sustain a knight in his volatile activities. By the time of the high Middle Ages, the nobility primarily directed others to fight their battles. During this time, the notion that the noble class had been predestined by God to rule became entrenched. It was their God-given right. This created the friction we discussed in the earlier chapter between the papacyThe office of pope in the Roman Catholic Church which is the highest office in its hierarchical structure. more, the nobility and the clergyconsists of the priest, ministers and pastors of Christian churches. In the medieval church this term referred to both regular priest who were monks subject to a rule (regula) of a monastic order and secular priest who were not monks... more.6

The highest estate was the clergyconsists of the priest, ministers and pastors of Christian churches. In the medieval church this term referred to both regular priest who were monks subject to a rule (regula) of a monastic order and secular priest who were not monks... more. Basically, there were two different Christian religious institutions during the Middle Ages―the structured ecclesiasticalFrom the Greek word ecclesia, meaning church or congregation and is used to refer to both separate Christian congregations and to the whole body of Christians. more Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more and the independent monastic orders―which operated side by side in the communities, occasionally resulting in conflict. Each consisted of its own, independent top-down structure, but they both shared two levels separating the leadership class from the lower level which interfaced with the public. The popeThe Roman Catholic bishop of Rome who is regarded as the successor of the chief apostle, Peter, and as the Vicar of Christ is the holder of the Apostolic See and head of Christ’s church on earth. more was the only personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more who overlapped both systems and held the keys to preside over all Christianity. Christendom was divided up into hundreds of dioceses and archdioceses that were governed by their respective bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more and archbishop. The monasteries were ruled by their abbot or mother superior. The monks were referred to regular clergyconsists of the priest, ministers and pastors of Christian churches. In the medieval church this term referred to both regular priest who were monks subject to a rule (regula) of a monastic order and secular priest who were not monks... more, meaning that they followed the rule of their monastic order. (regular is derived from the word rule.) The clergyconsists of the priest, ministers and pastors of Christian churches. In the medieval church this term referred to both regular priest who were monks subject to a rule (regula) of a monastic order and secular priest who were not monks... more at the local church were called secular clergyRefers to the clergy in the Middle Ages who served in the local churches under the direct authority of a bishop as opposed to those found in the monastic orders (regular clergy and mendicants). more because they were out in the secularOf the world in contrast to the divine. more world and not cloistered in a monastery.

There was a fluid opportunity for nobility to join the clerical estate either as a priest or as a monk. However, the barrier for the lower class was semipermeable. Anyone could become a monk or nun, but it was much more difficult to qualify to become a priest with authority over the territory of a parishIs a local geographical and administrative unit in the Catholic Church overseen by a parish priest under the direction of the diocese’s bishop. Some Protestant religions retained parishes in their organizations). more. Monastic life was appealing to a lot of people during the Middle Ages. By then, most monasteries had acquired enough wealth and property that the monks and nuns could live a comfortable, secure life, with good food and intellectual stimulation. It was particularly appealing to young women to avoid the disappointment of arranged marriages, a life of drudgery and the dangers of childbirth. Some aspiring noblemen viewed the priesthood as a path to acquiring wealth and power.

There was plenty of opportunity for individuals to pursue their religious devotion during the Middle Ages as there were churches and monasteries galore. It would not be uncommon for a town of five thousand people to have eight monasteries from different orders.8 In England, one out of fifty men belonged to a religious order when King Henry VIII(A.D. 26 Jun 1491–28 Jan 1547) Henry VIII became King of England in 1509. Initially he rejected the Protestant reformation movement and earned the title, Defender of the Faith, from the Catholic pope. He later broke from the Catholic Church... more confiscated all the monasteries. Unfortunately, in the high Middle Ages, there developed a distinction between the highly educated leadership tier of the church, which did not interact with the laityOr “lay persons” is a term derived from the Greek word for “the people,” and refers to the rank and file membership of the church in contrast to the clergy. The distinction is much greater and more important in Roman... more, and the local priest who was often poorly educated and ill equipped to deal with the challenges of the members in his parishIs a local geographical and administrative unit in the Catholic Church overseen by a parish priest under the direction of the diocese’s bishop. Some Protestant religions retained parishes in their organizations). more. Consequently, some individuals began to feel estranged from the clergyconsists of the priest, ministers and pastors of Christian churches. In the medieval church this term referred to both regular priest who were monks subject to a rule (regula) of a monastic order and secular priest who were not monks... more. Regardless, the vast majority of the population was engrossed in the medieval Christian worldview based on Christian salvation history, divine providenceThe word derived from the Latin word for “provide” and “foresee” that identifies the Medieval doctrine of God’s active benevolent sovereignty over all things and events in his creation, despite any appearance to the contrary. The universal belief in God’s... more and sacramentality.9

It is essential to understand the medieval perspective of world history and the purpose of existence in order to grasp what life was like in the Middle Ages and the history of the Western world down to the present day. Dante’s fourteenth-century epic The Divine Comedy was a masterpiece laying out the medieval worldview.10 One scholar calls this perspective “Christian Salvation History” which he summarized as follows:

The one, transcendent, omnipotent God, the true God, the creator of the Universe, created human beings as the crowning achievement of his creation. Genesis puts it thusly; man was created in God’s image, and he set human beings in Paradise, in the Garden of Eden, but AdamAccording to Jewish, Christian and Muslim scriptures, Adam was the first human being created by God out of the dust of the earth as the last step of creation. All humans descended from Adam and his wife, Eve, after they... more and EveAccording to Jewish, Christian and Muslim scriptures, all humans descended from Eve after she disobeyed God and partook of a forbidden fruit, causing a fallen world of sin and suffering. (See Adam.) more, through disobedience to God, through pride and thinking that they knew better themselves than God what was good for them, rebelled against him, which is how sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more entered the world, and human history.

All subsequent human beings, insofar simply as they partake of Adam’s human nature, were subject to this original sinThe doctrine developed by Augustine in the late 4th century that all human beings inherit the guilt of Adam’s sin and deserve damnation from birth. This is more than simply being born with a corrupt sinful nature that later leads... more. This was the first sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more that scarred and marked human nature. With original sinThe doctrine developed by Augustine in the late 4th century that all human beings inherit the guilt of Adam’s sin and deserve damnation from birth. This is more than simply being born with a corrupt sinful nature that later leads... more, pain, suffering, and death came into the world. Human beings were lost, separated from the God who had created them in loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more. Yet God, in his infinite mercy, called a people to himself, the Israelites. He made a covenant with them, establishing his holy law for them to follow. Through their prophets, they foretold of and prepared the way for a MessiahIs synonymous with the Greek based term “Christ” that comes from the Hebrew word for “the anointed one,” referring to the king of Judaea due to their practice of anointing their kings with oil instead being crowned. Referring to Jesus... more, a savior, who would lead the beleaguered nation to final triumph, the land of Israel. They would triumph over their enemies in a messianic age, an age of the Messiah.

According to Christians, this prophecy of the Old Testament prophets was fulfilled in the personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more, Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more of Nazareth. He was believed to be not just a prophet or great ethical leader, but the literal incarnation of God himself. John’s GospelEnglish translation of the Greek term evangelion, used in the New Testament meaning “good news.” This is a central term in Luther’s theology that emphasized the contrast between Law and Gospel. The Law condemn while the Gospel justifies believers through... more says that he was “the Word made flesh.” This was a staggering idea. God himself reaches down, as it were, and gets his hands dirty in the muck of human existence. He takes on all the temptations, the weakness, and suffering of humanity. It was Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more Christ’s death by crucifixion, in perfect obedience to God’s will, that undid AdamAccording to Jewish, Christian and Muslim scriptures, Adam was the first human being created by God out of the dust of the earth as the last step of creation. All humans descended from Adam and his wife, Eve, after they... more and Eve’s disobedience and made eternal salvation possible once again, union between those separated human beings and God. God’s loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more for humanity, then, extends to the point of himself becoming a human being, and suffering an excruciating, painful death.

Proceeding along—we’re talking, again, about Christian salvation history, the basic picture of how things are—God raised the crucified ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more from the dead, a triumph over death itself, and ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more, before joining his father in heaven, commissioned his followers to “preach the good news,” the GospelEnglish translation of the Greek term evangelion, used in the New Testament meaning “good news.” This is a central term in Luther’s theology that emphasized the contrast between Law and Gospel. The Law condemn while the Gospel justifies believers through... more, to all nations, to baptize them in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. In medieval Christianity, the heir of this movement, of Christ’s original followers, is understood to be the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more, described by Paul(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 64) Apostle and early Christian missionary, whose letters are the earliest documents contained in the New Testament and thus the first extant writings in Christian theology. more in the New Testament as the “mystical body of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more” made up of all Christians; that is, all those who believe in ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more as their savior and are united to him by their shared common faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more. The Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more, the development of this original movement, derives its authority from ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more, who, again, is God incarnate, and the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more, then, is God’s instrument on Earth for making salvation possible. The Church derives its authority from ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more; ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more is God.

Absolutely essential to this picture is the notion of divine revelationThe divine disclosure to humans of future events, God’s will or his nature. more. God had revealed himself to human beings, and created them in his image—again, even to the point of becoming human himself. This is the exact opposite of the modern atheistic view that human beings imagine or create God or gods in their image. The initiative in the process is God’s. The record of his revelationThe divine disclosure to humans of future events, God’s will or his nature. more is preserved and promulgated, again, by the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more. Part of that record is the books of the Bible, the sacred scripture. This notion, as a kind of side-note here, is fundamental in the sixteenth century as well. What’s at stake in Christianity, for those who subscribe to it, in the sixteenth century is “truth” with a capital “T.” It is about the way that things really are, fidelity to God’s teachings in the hope of eternal life, understood as salvation.

The final stage of Christian salvation history, in this basic overview, is that God’s earthly instrument of salvation would persist until ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more came again, a prophecy that’s foretold in the New Testament. The dead would be raised, reunited with their souls, and judged by ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more for eternity, some of them being sent to eternal salvation in heaven, and others to eternal damnation in hell. This would be the “apocalypse,” the end of the world, and the Last Judgment, with a capital “L” and a capital “J.”

That’s the basic overview of Christian salvation history. It brings us to the basic conceptualization, the basic picture, of human life as seen within medieval Christianity. Human life, here, is viewed as a transitory phase between birth and death, a mere twinkle in time compared to eternal life with God in heaven, or eternal damnation without God and with Satan in hell. One might exist temporarily after death in an intermediate condition, purgatoryIs the place in Roman Catholic theology where those who die in a state of grace, but not yet clean from the stain of sin, suffer temporal punishment in a purification process. more, until one’s sins had been purged sufficiently to enjoy eternal life with God.

Human life on earth, then, is lived as a transitory phase, in anticipation of judgment by God in the afterlife. “Right” Christian practice, “proper” Christian belief and practice—that is, orthodoxy, that is, following ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more truly and correctly rather than errantly—is necessary in order to have salvation. Otherwise, one is not, after all, following ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more.11

The high mortality rate in the Middle Ages increased one’s awareness of the four great truths: 1) we are born, 2) we live a short life, 3) we die, and 4) based on how we live we will either go to heaven to live in eternal bliss or go to hell to suffer in torment for eternity. Fear of loss is a stronger emotion than the hope for gain, so fear of going to hell overshadowed life up to the Protestant Reformation(A.D. 1517) The Protestant Reformation begins as Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses, largely in response to the widespread abuses caused by the aggressive commercialization of indulgences. more and into the modern era. Even so, most of the people were nominal Christians, living pagan and immoral lives. Their ancestral pagan traditions and superstition persisted in the rural villages where the vast majority of the people lived. Pursuant to Augustine’s all or nothing sin paradigm, the vast majority of the populace would have been consigned to hell based on their actions, but the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more did not want to tell their parishioners this discouraging prognosis, so it adopted the Platonist idea of purgatoryIs the place in Roman Catholic theology where those who die in a state of grace, but not yet clean from the stain of sin, suffer temporal punishment in a purification process. more where Christians suffer after they die to pay for their unabsolved sins. This new doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more worked hand in glove with an increased emphasis on the sacrament more of penanceIs an old version of the word “repentance,” and refers to: 1) the Catholic sacrament also referred to as Confession where remorseful sinner (the “penitent”) confesses sins to a priest (the “confessor:”) who grants absolution; 2) the activities stipulated by... more and the priest’s role as a dispenser of God’s graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more. In practice, both penanceIs an old version of the word “repentance,” and refers to: 1) the Catholic sacrament also referred to as Confession where remorseful sinner (the “penitent”) confesses sins to a priest (the “confessor:”) who grants absolution; 2) the activities stipulated by... more and purgatoryIs the place in Roman Catholic theology where those who die in a state of grace, but not yet clean from the stain of sin, suffer temporal punishment in a purification process. more did not require a change of heart; instead, they substituted suffering and works for conversionThis term is derived from the Latin word for “turning,” and is a theological term that refers to one turning his will from evil to good and is generally used to denote one becoming a Christian and/or joining a particular... more.12

The Garden of Earthly Delights by Hieronymus Bosch, a triptych oil painting on oak panels, c. 1490–1510. Interpretations suggest a warning against the perils of temptation with the first panel representing Eden at the moment God introduces Eve to Adam and the third, man’s suffering in Purgatory and Hell.

The scholastic movement of that time organized faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more into various categories. These included explicit faith, which encompassed the theologians’ understanding of what faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more consisted of, and implicit faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more, which was simply living life in accordance with God’s lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more. Implicit faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more was sufficient to save someone even if they didn’t understand the theology behind their actions. Belief was not enough, though. Faith had to be a living faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more, evidenced through one’s actions. Yet, they still realized that we are ultimately saved by God’s grace as expressed through His mercy that one could access through the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more sacraments. Consequently, obedience to the priest, who purportedly knew God’s will, was important. Indeed, the clergyconsists of the priest, ministers and pastors of Christian churches. In the medieval church this term referred to both regular priest who were monks subject to a rule (regula) of a monastic order and secular priest who were not monks... more became God’s emissaries and conduits for the laityOr “lay persons” is a term derived from the Greek word for “the people,” and refers to the rank and file membership of the church in contrast to the clergy. The distinction is much greater and more important in Roman... more to receive His graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more.13

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