Christian Theories Regarding the Atonement

The heart of Christian theology is redemption, which revolves around the atonement of Jesus Christ.

The term “atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more” refers to Jesus’s sacrifice to reconcile humanity with God, to become “at one” with God. Even though various Christian denominations utilize different theories to explain how this reconciliation is achieved, all of them view Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more as the Savior of mankind.

Christian theologians developed the following five basic theories to explain how Christ’s atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more works: 1) the recapitulation theory, 2) the ransom theory (also referred to as the substitution theory), 3) the satisfactionComes from a Latin term meaning “to do enough” and is associated with the idea of making up for some wrong or paying a debt owed to someone. It specifically refers to one of the four parts of the Roman... more theory, 4) the moral influence theory, and 5) the penal substitution theory. Proponents of each of these theories claim support from the Bible. Consequently, most lay Christians accept aspects of all of them to varying degrees, but theologians from different denominations range from a very narrow-minded view to a broad approach in their analysis of these competing theories.

Western Christian ideas regarding redemption are generally focused on justificationThis term comes from the root Latin word “jus” meaning law or right and “Justus” meaning justice. The words “justification” and “righteous” are different translation of the same Latin word and literally means “becoming just.” The central issue of the... more, which refers to being pardoned from the punishment for sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more and being pronounced free from guiltLuther uses this term to identify the reality of guilt and not the feeling of remorse for wrong-doing. Terror was the emotion Luther equated with a guilty conscious. more. This is realized through the graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more of God and faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more in Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more. Sanctification is generally understood to be different from justificationThis term comes from the root Latin word “jus” meaning law or right and “Justus” meaning justice. The words “justification” and “righteous” are different translation of the same Latin word and literally means “becoming just.” The central issue of the... more and refers to the process of becoming pure and holy through the grace of God. Western Christianity’s focus on justificationThis term comes from the root Latin word “jus” meaning law or right and “Justus” meaning justice. The words “justification” and “righteous” are different translation of the same Latin word and literally means “becoming just.” The central issue of the... more more than on sanctificationDerived from the Latin word sanctus for “holy” and literally means “becoming holy.” In most Protestant theology it refers to the process of become a more moral individual through an internal transformation following justification that occurs at the time of... more stems from Augustine’s sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more paradigm. CalvinJohn Calvin (A.D. 1509-1564) French Protestant theologian who lived most of his adult life in Geneva. He was the most influential figure in Reformed theology and author of the Institutes, the most important systematic theology text of Protestantism. more hypothesized the last major theory on how Christ’s atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more works, which has gained great acceptance in the Western Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more, especially among Protestants.

As the early Church grew, the recapitulation theory became the dominate approach to explain Christ’s atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more, and it is still followed by the Eastern [Greek] Orthodox Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more. This theory deals with Christ’s humanity lifting us up to become unified with the divine and eventually sanctified. The doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of the Orthodox Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more was basically frozen in time after the early councils. One of the basic tenets of the early Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more was that Christ became human so that mankind can become gods. This is the essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more of the recapitulation theory. Basically, because ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more shared all of our human experience, including death, we can share his divine life through our unity with him. The term recapitulation means to “sum up” as Paul(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 64) Apostle and early Christian missionary, whose letters are the earliest documents contained in the New Testament and thus the first extant writings in Christian theology. more wrote to the Ephesians, “In the dispensation of the fullness of times he might gather together in one [sum up] all things in ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more, both which are in heaven, and which are on the earth; even in him.”1 In the second century Justin Martyr(c.A.D 100–165) Born in Palestine early in the 2nd century, Justin was educated as a philosopher and converted to Christianity, retaining many of his Platonist convictions. He wrote an important Apology (meaning a defense of Christianity against the pagans) and... more taught: “Because the only-begotten Son came to us from the one God, who both made this world and formed us, and contains and administers all things, summing up His own handiwork in Himself, my faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more towards Him is steadfast, and my loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more to the Father immoveable.”2 (Emphasis added). The concept is best understood as redemption through participation instead of through the payment of some penal price. So ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more exalts us to become divine as we allow God to bring us into solidarity with him.

The recapitulation theory of Christ’s atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more involves the potential deification of mankind. Paul(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 64) Apostle and early Christian missionary, whose letters are the earliest documents contained in the New Testament and thus the first extant writings in Christian theology. more expresses this idea in his epistle to the Colossians. “For in him dwelleth all the fullness of the Godhead bodily. And ye are completed in him, which is the head of all principality and power.”3 I prefer the Latin version, which can be translated as: “Because in him abides physically all of the fullness of the divine [or divinity], and we are completed in him, who is the head of all principality and power.” Now, consider how this scripture interplays with Christ’s great intercessory prayer: “That they may be one; as thou, Father, art in me, and I in thee, that they may be one in us … that the loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more wherewith thou hast loved me may be in them, and I in them.”4 This theory of Christ’s atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more stands for the proposition that the loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more of God lifts us up to become unified with them.

The business idea of a white-knight in merger acquisitions is a modern-day example of this concept. When a company becomes insolvent and unable to pay its creditors, it hopes that another a larger and more financially stable company will be interested in acquiring the insolvent company in order for it to stay alive and avoid liquidation through bankruptcy. This potential buyer is referred to as a white-knight because it moves in to save the company. The struggling company merges into and becomes part of the white-knight, which assumes the debt of the insolvent company and pays it off. The white-knight is willing to do this for various reasons. Usually it is because the white knight believes that the insolvent company will add some value to the acquiring company such as entry into a new market with additional customers, or it may have some patents or other intellectual property that will benefit the white-knight more than the cost of the debt it has to pay to acquire the insolvent company.

Orthodox theology points to JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more 3:16, which states, “For God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting life,” for the proposition that God’s loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more for us was the motivation to save us similar to the way a white-knight saves a bankrupt company.

Aspects of this theory, with a diluted concept of human deification, remain part of Catholic and some ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more theology.

In the early fifth century, a different theory regarding Christ’s atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more displaced the Orthodox theory in the Western Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more (Roman Catholic) due to the teachings of Augustine(A.D. 354-430) Bishop of Hippo in North Africa, the most influential theologian of the West, known especially for his doctrine of grace, including related doctrines of original sin and predestination. more of Hippo, which focused on justificationThis term comes from the root Latin word “jus” meaning law or right and “Justus” meaning justice. The words “justification” and “righteous” are different translation of the same Latin word and literally means “becoming just.” The central issue of the... more, graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more, and his new doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of original sinThe doctrine developed by Augustine in the late 4th century that all human beings inherit the guilt of Adam’s sin and deserve damnation from birth. This is more than simply being born with a corrupt sinful nature that later leads... more. The objective of Christianity shifted from becoming like God to simply going to heaven to see God. This new paradigm had much more to do with being saved from punishment than the earlier emphasis on individual sanctificationDerived from the Latin word sanctus for “holy” and literally means “becoming holy.” In most Protestant theology it refers to the process of become a more moral individual through an internal transformation following justification that occurs at the time of... more. This theory of Christ’s atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more has Biblical roots going back to the Old Testament and through the epistles of the apostles. It is referred to as the ransom theory.

The ransom or substitution theory of Christ’s atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more includes a few variations. The original ransom theory was essentially:

AdamAccording to Jewish, Christian and Muslim scriptures, Adam was the first human being created by God out of the dust of the earth as the last step of creation. All humans descended from Adam and his wife, Eve, after they... more and EveAccording to Jewish, Christian and Muslim scriptures, all humans descended from Eve after she disobeyed God and partook of a forbidden fruit, causing a fallen world of sin and suffering. (See Adam.) more sold themselves and all of their descendants over to the Devil at the time of the Fall; hence, justice required that God pay the Devil a ransom to free us from the Devil’s clutches. God, however tricked the Devil into accepting Christ’s death as a ransom, for the Devil did not realize that ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more could not be held in the bonds of death. Once the Devil accepted Christ’s death as a ransom, this theory concluded, justice was satisfied and God was able to free us from Satan’s grip.5

This version of the ransom theory was the dominate view of Christ’s atonement by Western Christians from Augustine(A.D. 354-430) Bishop of Hippo in North Africa, the most influential theologian of the West, known especially for his doctrine of grace, including related doctrines of original sin and predestination. more (fifth century) until the eleventh century.

Early Christian theologians believed that the use of a scapegoat, who carried all of Israel’s sins into the wilderness on the Day of Atonement under the Law of Moses(Died c. 1400 B.C.) Moses was a Hebrew prophet who led his people out of slavery in Egypt. He instituted the Mosaic Law consisting of both ritual and moral elements. Many Christians believe that this law is part of God’s... more, ostensibly to appease the Devil, supported this view of how Christ’s atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more worked. Likewise, the common practice of redeeming war captives from slavery added context to the ransom theory. This view of Christ’s atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more is reflected in the storyline of the book and movie The Lion, Witch, and the Wardrobe by C.S. Lewis, where the lion tricks the witch into accepting his offer to die to rescue one of the children and later comes back to life to save all of the people from the witch and to defeat her hosts in a grand final battle. Proponents of this early ransom theory point to statements made by Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more6 and Paul(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 64) Apostle and early Christian missionary, whose letters are the earliest documents contained in the New Testament and thus the first extant writings in Christian theology. more7 to support their theology, however others claim that they distort the use of the term “ransom.”

In the eleventh century, Anselm(c. 1033–1109 A.D.) Monk, then abbot of Bec in Normandy, then archbishop of Canterbury (1093–1109); the first great medieval theologian of the West who is famous for his account of how Christ’s death made satisfaction for human sin in the... more, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and later others argued that this view could not be correct because it would make God a debtor to Satan and also a deceiver, because he only pretended to pay the debt owed to the Devil. Instead, Anselm advocated a new theory commonly referred to at the satisfactionComes from a Latin term meaning “to do enough” and is associated with the idea of making up for some wrong or paying a debt owed to someone. It specifically refers to one of the four parts of the Roman... more theory. As the ReformationA revolutionary religious movement during the 16th century Europe that initially sought to reform the Roman Catholic Church but led to the emergence of several groups breaking away for the Catholic church and establishing their own separate religions which came... more took hold in the West, the prior 1000-year-old ransom theory fell into disfavor in Western Christianity and was replaced with variations of Anselm’s satisfactionComes from a Latin term meaning “to do enough” and is associated with the idea of making up for some wrong or paying a debt owed to someone. It specifically refers to one of the four parts of the Roman... more theory as the pre-dominate view to explain Christ’s atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more.

The satisfactionComes from a Latin term meaning “to do enough” and is associated with the idea of making up for some wrong or paying a debt owed to someone. It specifically refers to one of the four parts of the Roman... more theory of Christ’s atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more holds that sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more is an affront to God’s innate characteristic of justice. We all owe honor to God, and sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more robs God of the honor that he is due. Justice demands that compensation must be paid for this loss of honor. The sinless Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more went beyond the call of duty through his crucifixion. ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more thus offered more honor to God than he was obliged to give and this extra meritA person’s right of deserving reward. In Catholicism it consists of two parts, Condign merit (a concept developed by Augustine) referring to good works of love that are performed through God’s grace making a person worthy of the reward of... more satisfies the demand of justice. Consequently, when Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more died, he paid a debt owed to God and not to Satan.

During the Middle Ages, the seriousness of a crime was determined not by the nature of the crime but on the social status of the individual who was injured. So, stealing a chicken from a lord warranted a more severe punishment than stealing one from a fellow peasant, and stealing from the king would warrant death. Following this reasoning, when we sin, we are stealing honor from God, warranting eternal death in hell regardless of the gravity of the nature of the sin. There was no way an individual could compensate for any offense because we already owed God our complete fidelity. Therefore, only God could save humanity by becoming a man without sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more and dying to restore this honor on the sinners’ behalf.

Thomas Aquinas(c. A.D. 1225-1274) Dominican friar, teacher at the University of Paris, central figure of medieval scholasticism, and the most authoritative theologian of the Roman Catholic tradition; known for his use of Aristotelian philosophy and his conception of supernatural grace. more subsequently modified this theory by arguing that instead of restoring honor to God, Christ’s atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more restored individuals to a state of harmony with God by satisfying justice’s demand for punishment. According to Thomas Aquinas(c. A.D. 1225-1274) Dominican friar, teacher at the University of Paris, central figure of medieval scholasticism, and the most authoritative theologian of the Roman Catholic tradition; known for his use of Aristotelian philosophy and his conception of supernatural grace. more, Christ’s death and passion satisfied the penalty owed for sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more and created a superabundance of meritA person’s right of deserving reward. In Catholicism it consists of two parts, Condign merit (a concept developed by Augustine) referring to good works of love that are performed through God’s grace making a person worthy of the reward of... more in heaven referred to as a Treasury of Merit which can be accessed through the Church’s sacraments and indulgences. This belief tied in beautifully with the Roman Catholic Church’s teaching regarding original sinThe doctrine developed by Augustine in the late 4th century that all human beings inherit the guilt of Adam’s sin and deserve damnation from birth. This is more than simply being born with a corrupt sinful nature that later leads... more and indulgences and remains the current understanding of Christ’s atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more by Catholic theologians.

Unlike Anslem, who believed that man already owes all of their good works to God, Thomas Aquinas(c. A.D. 1225-1274) Dominican friar, teacher at the University of Paris, central figure of medieval scholasticism, and the most authoritative theologian of the Roman Catholic tradition; known for his use of Aristotelian philosophy and his conception of supernatural grace. more taught that persons can satisfy the demand of justice for punishment of their individual sins, but only ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more could redeem us from Adam’s original sinThe doctrine developed by Augustine in the late 4th century that all human beings inherit the guilt of Adam’s sin and deserve damnation from birth. This is more than simply being born with a corrupt sinful nature that later leads... more. Thus, ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more acts as a second AdamAccording to Jewish, Christian and Muslim scriptures, Adam was the first human being created by God out of the dust of the earth as the last step of creation. All humans descended from Adam and his wife, Eve, after they... more who steps into our place and pays the price for original sinThe doctrine developed by Augustine in the late 4th century that all human beings inherit the guilt of Adam’s sin and deserve damnation from birth. This is more than simply being born with a corrupt sinful nature that later leads... more on behalf of all mankind, and to some extent we individually need to pay the price for our own sins.

The moral influence theory is a view of Christ’s atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more that is espoused by modern liberal Christian theologians and philosophers such as Immanuel Kant(A.D. 1724–1804) German thinker generally recognized as the greatest philosopher of the modern period. He revolutionized modern epistemology with the argument that the mind is active in shaping our experience. He argued that we can think, but not know God... more, but it is based on some of the earliest Christian writings. In essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more, this theory teaches that the purpose of Christianity is to create a positive moral change in individuals and society, and this is accomplished through Christ’s teachings, his example, the religious movement he founded, and the inspiring effect of his martyrdom and resurrectionThe doctrine that Jesus’ spiritual essence was reunited with his physical body and that other humans will likewise live again with their spirit or soul reunited with their material body. This term does not refer to the doctrine of the... more.

The concept that God’s love had redemptive and converting power was a common theme of the early Christian Fathers such as Clement of Rome(c. A.D. 35–99) He was bishop of Rome from around AD 88 to his death in AD 99. His is one of the few Church fathers who lived during the time of the Apostles. His letter to the Church at... more, Ignatius of Antioch(c. A.D. 35–108) Also known as Ignatius Theophorus, was the second bishop of Antioch who wrote a series of letter to other bishops while he was in transit to Rome to meet his martyrdom. These writings are some of the... more, Polycarp(A.D. 69–155) Polycarp was the Bishop of Smyrna in present-day Turkey. Polycarp was a disciple of John the Apostle and is thought to have been ordained as the Bishop of Smyrna by John. Polycarp is one of the main Apostolic... more, and apologists like Irenaeus(c. A.D. 120–200) Bishop of Lyon, the most important Christian theologian of the 2nd century; author of a large work, Against Heresies. more, Origen, and Clement of Alexandria(c. A.D. 150–215) Titus Flavius Clemens, now known as Clement of Alexandria, was an early Christian theologian whose theology was heavily influenced by Greek philosophy. He also espoused esoteric positions informed by esoteric Jewish and Gnostic teachings. more. Even though some of these early Christian writers expressed additional approaches to understanding Christ’s atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more, it is universally agreed by historians that some elements of the moral influence theory formed the basis of early Christian teachings regarding Christ’s atonementA term referring to how Christ’s suffering and death on the cross expiates sin and reconciles humans with God. There are various theories regarding how the atonement of Christ functions, including, ransom theory, substitutional or satisfaction theory, the moral influence... more.

However, under the modern interpretation of this theory, any direct link between redemption and the Savior’s death is minimized while knowledge of the Savior’s life as a whole is emphasized. Under the modern view of this theory, the moral influence of Christ’s life and his willing martyrdom is exclusively what blesses mankind. This perspective formed the foundation of liberal ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more theology which gained wide acceptance in the nineteenth century.

JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more CalvinJohn Calvin (A.D. 1509-1564) French Protestant theologian who lived most of his adult life in Geneva. He was the most influential figure in Reformed theology and author of the Institutes, the most important systematic theology text of Protestantism. more later taught a variation of the satisfactionComes from a Latin term meaning “to do enough” and is associated with the idea of making up for some wrong or paying a debt owed to someone. It specifically refers to one of the four parts of the Roman... more theory called the penal substitution theory. CalvinJohn Calvin (A.D. 1509-1564) French Protestant theologian who lived most of his adult life in Geneva. He was the most influential figure in Reformed theology and author of the Institutes, the most important systematic theology text of Protestantism. more wrote that Christ’s death did not pay a general penalty for the sins of all humanity but only the specific penalty for the sins of the few persons whom God had elected to save. Each individual warranted personal punishment for his/her sins which they could not pay. ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more took the place of the sinners he chose to save and paid their penalty on the crossWas an agonizing method used by the Roman Empire to execute slaves, rebels and others major offender to the order of the empire. In fulfillment of prophecy, this was the means by which Christ was crucified. Even though some early... more. Calvin reasoned that because the redemptive act (the crucifixion) occurred at a particular point in time, God only atoned for the sins of those he had chosen or predestined to save. Additionally, Calvin rejected the idea of penanceIs an old version of the word “repentance,” and refers to: 1) the Catholic sacrament also referred to as Confession where remorseful sinner (the “penitent”) confesses sins to a priest (the “confessor:”) who grants absolution; 2) the activities stipulated by... more paying for sin and instead taught that Christ suffered to satisfy God’s wrath.

Calvin’s penal substitution theory is the approach followed by most ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more denominations. However, some have adopted the moral influence view or a variation of the satisfaction theory taught by Hugo Grotius called the governmental theory. Grotius taught that ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more did not suffer the punishment in general for humanity’s sins or specifically for individual sins. Instead, Christ’s suffering demonstrates what sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more deserves at the hands of a just, eternal Governor so that he can forgive sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more while maintaining order in the Universe. Proponents of all these various theories maintain that their position is supported by the Bible.

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