Twentieth-Century Philosophy

On May 29, 1919, an obscure physicist named Albert Einstein was thrust into the limelight when his four-year-old theory of relativity shockingly passed its first test during a total solar eclipse. Headlines around the world proclaimed that he had “destroyed space and time.”1 Overnight, Einstein became a sensation that has transcended time.

On April 6, 1922, Einstein attended a crowded meeting of physicists and philosophers in Paris, which was convened to discuss his theory of relativity. The renowned philosopher, Henri Bergson, came to listen, but when the liveliness of the discussion waned, he was pressed to intervene. He rose and challenged Einstein regarding his conclusion about time, initiating a debate that has continued among intellectuals into the twenty-first century.

Bergson did not object to most of Einstein’s work. Indeed, he admired it. But he argued that Einstein inappropriately discounted the importance of the lived experience of time, which was distinct from clock time. Bergson insisted that lived experience was the foundation of all concepts associated with time and that it transcends science itself. He argued that our understanding of time is based on experiencing the passage of time, which he called duration. Even though science needed to have precise means to measure the passage of time, those measurements could not capture the human experience of duration.

Bergson argued that timeline or each second on a clock do not capture the experience to listening to a beautiful melody. The notes, and even the silence between them, are not just distinct points in time but are understood and valued through the flow of change. Life is more about becoming than the illusive now. Each note and moment has meaning based on the flow of the duration of time that we experience. Indeed, the clicks of each second on a clock would be meaningless without the lived time which provides the context to recognize the succession of these passing seconds. Measurement presupposes duration, but duration cannot be measured. The duration of lived time is more fundamental than clock time, which is just an abstraction of the concrete experience of duration.

Einstein shrugged off Bergson’s comments with the curt statement that there was no such thing as philosopher time. It was just something in a person’s head. He focused on the objective measurement of physical time based on simultaneous events (the position of the hand of a clock at the moment something else happens).

The debate became intense over the concept of time dilation. Time dilation was the difference of time experienced by two objects or individuals traveling at different velocities in relation to each other. Bergson argued that no one actually experiences time slowing down or speeding up. Time dilution only exists in relation to another frame of reference, which can only be observed from the outside. Because time dilation always affects the clock of the other, both clocks were symmetrical. So, time dilation was merely a mathematical abstraction and not a physically reality. Einstein argued the opposite.

An experiment in 1971 proved that Einstein was right about the difference in time actually being physical and not simply a mathematical expression. However, scientists now universally agree that Bergson was correct that each personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more would experience his own time independent of any other time. Think of the scene in the movie Contact when Jodie Foster’s charactercomes from a Latin word that basically means an “indelible mark” like a tattoo. Under Roman Catholic theology, this word is a term of art that refers to an indelible mark made on the soul by the sacraments of baptism,... more asked “How long was I gone?” after a lengthy life-altering experience which occurred while everyone else simply watched the capsule she was in drop straight down. To an impartial observer, Einstein and Bergson each raised valid points, but they were so entrenched in their own views that they refused to grant any credence to the other side’s argument.2

The debate between Einstein and Bergson encapsulates a philosophical schism that developed during this same time period and continues today. On one side is the Anglo-American world’s analytic philosophy, which is more aligned with Einstein, versus the European’s continental philosophy, which more fully follow’s Bergson’s approach. Both sides are loathe to talk to the other. The analytics accuse the continentals of being lazy and unscientific, while the continentals say the analytics do not see the forest through the trees because they are not asking the right questions. Such a contemptuous and long-lasting division has deep roots.

After NietzscheFriedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), declared that God is dead, and the intellectuals of his day had killed him. With the death of God, nihilism was born. more severed metaphysics from philosophy, the profession splintered into numerous factions with two major categories: analytic philosophy and continental philosophy. Each of these two schools of thought encompassed a broad spectrum of ideas. The dominate form of philosophy in the English-speaking world today is the fractured remains of an evolving philosophical movement known as analytic philosophy.

The German mathematician Gottlob Frege (1848–1925) laid the foundation for analytic philosophy through his project of reducing arithmetic into an expanded form of logic, which enabled a greater range of sentences to be written in a logical form or equations.

Around the turn of the twentieth century, G. E. Moore (1873–1958) and Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) broke away from the remnants of Hegelian absolute idealismIs a modern philosophical orientation that to some extent reality reflects the human thought process instead of being independent of cognitive thinking. Kant proposed a philosophy referred to as transcendental idealism and Hegel soon thereafter taught a more robust form... more (the idea that an all-inclusive spiritual reality undergirded the physical world), which dominated philosophy during the nineteenth century. At that time, a form of metaphysical monism (the idea that all things are part of one fundamental essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more) called internal relations was the conventional philosophy in the British Isles. This theory maintained that each object exists only in light of its relationship to everything else. Moore and Russell initiated a new philosophical path utilizing Frege’s tools of logic.

Moore advocated a more realistic philosophy based on common sense and an ordinary view of the world. He rejected the universal system-building approach to philosophy which characterized philosophy for millennia in favor of narrowly defined philosophical problems that were analyzed in isolation. This reductionist form of philosophizing, which paid close attention to linguistics and the meaning of each word, attracted a broad following. Moore recast philosophy as the practice of using logic to conduct a linguistic analysis of isolated issues. This was the beginning of the linguistic turn in philosophy.

Russell and his former pupil, Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951), took Moore’s work one step further and tried to develop the ideal logical language to use in analysis. Part of this effort was based on the belief that every concept could be broken down into ultimate “facts” (or atoms) which could then be independently tested. These facts could become part of a logical equation. This is referred to as logical atomism. Russell proposed that all philosophical issues could be resolved by converting common language into a mathematical equation to make the issue clear and verifiable. This theory was developed during Russell’s work with Alfred North WhiteheadA.N. Whitehead, the renowned British mathematician and philosopher who observed, "The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that ot consists of a series of footnotes to Plato." more (1861–1947) on their project Principia Mathematica. Russell further expressed his ideas on how language interacts with the world through logic in his influential works Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy and Logical Atomism. The view that philosophical problems were nothing more than linguistic illusions which could be resolved through linguistic analytics captivated the Anglo-American world.

A number of intellectuals in Vienna led by Moritz Schlick (1882-1936) and Rudolf Carnap (1891-1970) combined the methodological views of the analytic movement in England, especially Russell’s ideal-language effort, with the central concepts of positivism, to form an influential movement called logical positivism (also directly related to logical empiricism). Positivism claims that all genuine knowledge is either true by definition or is proven true by pure reason based on observation. Logical positivism maintained that only statements which were verifiable through direct observation or through logical proof were worthy of consideration. Every concept had to be verified through observation and clear logic or it was meaningless. Any metaphysical or theological issues were discarded out of hand by the respected Vienna Circle. This movement greatly contributed to analytical philosophy’s close association with the scientific movement. Indeed, analytic philosophers viewed that their philosophical method was part of science.

Analytic philosophers’ wholesale rejection of traditional philosophy’s metaphysical bent, along with their fixation on reducing complex concepts into its minute parts to be examined by linguistics and logic, became the de facto form of philosophy in the English-speaking world. However, the foundation it was built on began to crumble under its own weight. Russell was unable to create the ideal language. The overreach of logical positivism became apparent when philosopher W. V. Quine (1908-2000) showed how it was meaningless according to its own criteria. Even one of the founders of the movement, Wittgenstein, changed his opinion in his later years, stating that there is no such thing as an ideal language because language is intrinsically a social phenomenon and cannot be examined in the abstract.

By the mid-1960s, analytic linguistic philosophy had run its course, but analytic philosophy did not die. Instead, it grew—continental philosophers would say that it metastasized. At its core, analytic philosophy was more of an approach to philosophy than a bundle of philosophical ideas. Analytical philosophers applied this system of reduction and analysis to multiple fields of study to create several different forms and directions under the analytic umbrella, including: the philosophy of science, philosophy of language, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of the mind, conceptual analysis, and conceptual engineering. Analytic philosophy remains the dominate school of philosophy in the English-speaking world today.3

In the mid-twentieth century, Analytic philosophers began to pejoratively refer to the various forms of philosophy on the European continent as continental philosophy, which title was subsequently embraced by the European philosophers and their supporters. Continental philosophy is not a specific defined philosophy but a continuation of traditional European philosophy that continued to evolved in various ways out of its Kantian and Hegelian roots, including: phenomenology, existentialism and critical theory.

In 1874, Franz Brentano (1838-1917) reintroduced Anselm’s medieval concept of intentionality, which refers to a personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more being able to form a representation of things in his mind. The perception of a car in your mind has intentionality because it refers to such a car.  When a personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more grabs a block of wood to pound in a nail, it has intentionality as a hammer. How one’s mind envisions the phenomena of various things and ideas, along with their application, is their intentionality. It has more to do with how one views and relates to things than to the physical attributes of the object. The resurgence of intentionality, and the role consciousness plays in human experience, led to a new branch of philosophy called phenomenology.

Phenomenology was widely adopted in Europe during the first half of the twentieth century. Phenomenology literally is the study of the way we experience phenomena and the meaning they have in our lives. Phenomenology is a school of thought that focuses on the personal perceptions of individual experience without any effort to fit the findings into a preconceived worldview. It maintains that the ultimate source of value and a meaningful human existence is found in the personal experiences of each human’s life. It examines how individual consciousness is influenced by specific phenomenon and how the use of language contributes to our understanding of history and influences one’s worldview.

Edmond Husserl (1869–1938) introduced his theory of phenomenology and his student Martin HeideggerMartin Heidegger (A.D. 1889–1976) German philosopher whose early work, Being and Time (A.D. 1927), which owed a great deal to Kierkegaard’s analysis of human existence, was one of the most important sources of existentialism and thus highly influential on 20th... more (1889–1976) developed it to become a major influence in Germany and later in France.4 Phenomenology consists of describing an experience, interpreting the experience, and analyzing the experience and its interpretation. Through this process we are able to gain knowledge about the nature of consciousness. Husserl developed his theory in reaction to Hegel’s all-encompassing idealismIs a modern philosophical orientation that to some extent reality reflects the human thought process instead of being independent of cognitive thinking. Kant proposed a philosophy referred to as transcendental idealism and Hegel soon thereafter taught a more robust form... more. He combined the logical study of objective ideas with the psychological study of subjective ideas.  Husserl asserted that his theory was transcendentalA concept proposed by Kant referring to arguments that illuminate conditions of possibility for a phenomenon. more and the foundation of all philosophy. He proposed “bracketing” issues dealing with existence in the real world in order to focus on the structure of our conscious experience with the world.

Husserl’s assistant, Martin HeideggerMartin Heidegger (A.D. 1889–1976) German philosopher whose early work, Being and Time (A.D. 1927), which owed a great deal to Kierkegaard’s analysis of human existence, was one of the most important sources of existentialism and thus highly influential on 20th... more, disagreed.  He maintained that we are always in the world and cannot ignore it. He insisted that we can only interpret activities and their meaning in their relation to the world. His treatise, Being and Time, published in 1927, became the standard for phenomenologist thought. We are able to discover the meaning of things as we apply them to individuals existing in time. In order to discover one’s true self, one must explore the cultural framework which envelops them and the language used to express the phenomena one experienced. Similar to the humanists of the Renaissances, many phenomenologists looked adoringly to the past for inspiration.

Phenomenology is closely related to existentialism, which claims each individual is responsible for creating purpose or meaning in their own lives in what is otherwise a meaningless universe. How one relates to existence is up to the individual and no one else. The role of individualism and authenticity are major themes found in existentialism. Humans innately need purpose and meaning in their lives, but it cannot be given to them by gods, rulers, teachers or any other authority. Søren Kierkegaard’s writings regarding individual responsibility were a precursor to this movement. NietzscheFriedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), declared that God is dead, and the intellectuals of his day had killed him. With the death of God, nihilism was born. more brought existentialism to center stage and his influence is seen throughout much of continental philosophy’s varied branches. Henri Bergsom’s wariness of the scope of science also helped pave the way for existentialism. Modern existentialism came into full bloom with Jean Paul Sartre (1905–1980) with his masterpiece, Being and Nothingness, where he lays out the groundlessness and radical freedom of the human condition.

The psychiatrist and philosopher Karl Jaspers (1883-1969) put limits on the scientific paradigm claiming that it was unable to deal with various topics related to the mind and spirit. He emphasized the importance of people realizing and embracing the limitations of their own existence. He argued that human beings need to accept that they are temporalIs a technical term used in theology referring to this mortal physical existence in time as opposed to eternal divine existence outside of time. more beings, and that ultimate questions about meaning and the purpose of life cannot be conclusively answered. Other existentialist philosophers moved in a mystical direction typically proposing a form of monism.

ExistentialismA 20th century philosophical, theological, and literary movement which grew out of the teachings of the 19th-century philosopher/theologian Kierkegaard and to a lesser degree others such as Nietzche. It emphasizes the uniqueness of individuals and deals with issues of guilt,... more spilled over to influence other disciplines besides philosophy. Carl Jung (1875–1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist who founded the school of analytical psychology and also influenced debate in a wide field of study including philosophy, religion and anthropologyIn theology, this term refers to theories regarding human nature and the meaning of human existence. Usage of this term in theology is not to be confused with the discipline of cultural anthropology as taught in universities. more.

There is overlap between Jung’s ideas and existentialism. He maintained that the nature of an individual is predisposed to the “timeless” human influences he referred to as archetypes. He believed that the human psyche was composed of the ego, personal unconscious and a collective historical unconscious. This collective unconsciousness consisted of four major archetypes that play a major role on an individual’s charactercomes from a Latin word that basically means an “indelible mark” like a tattoo. Under Roman Catholic theology, this word is a term of art that refers to an indelible mark made on the soul by the sacraments of baptism,... more development. He taught that all humans are connected to each other through the inherited shared experiences of their ancestors, and this shared unconsciousness provides meaning to human existence. He also theorized that people perceive the world using four psychological functions—sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking—that vary in strength personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more to personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more. Jung was not a postmodernist, but his teachings have greatly influenced western thought to this day.5

Marxist intellectuals were surprised that the Bolsheviks’ successful uprising in Russia did not sweep over the globe. A group of Marxist sociologists in Germany known as the Frankfurt School theorized that the economic oppression that Marx described was insufficient to activate a sufficient segment of society to overthrow their oppressors. Consequently, they expanded Marx’s thesis to include cultural oppression as well. This became known as critical theory. It argues that social problems primarily stem from social structures and erroneous cultural assumptions. Critical theory is an attempt to reveal, critique, and dismantle power structures “to liberate human beings from the circumstances that enslave them.”6 These professors fled to universities in France and the United States when Hitler came to power and began to arrest his communist foes. Critical theory was first widely adopted by the feminist movement in France and spread from there to other marginalized groups. It has been adopted by some postmodernists, with critical race theory currently being its most prominent iteration.

Critical theory is related to structuralism and post-structuralism. “Structuralism proposes that human culture can be understood by means of a structure which is modeled on language. As a result, there is concrete reality on the one hand, abstract ideas about reality on the other hand, and a “third order” that mediates between the two.”7 Post-structuralists critique the reliability and rigidity of structuralists in categorizing the innumerable expressions of universal truths. This is part of a general trend of skeptical, anti-authoritarian philosophy that has become known as postmodernismA much used and debated term with a wide range of meanings. From a theological perspecitive it generally refers to the view that modernity, which regards tradition as irrational. more.8

There is widespread debate between the analytic and continental traditions, but outside the academy the distinctions do not seem to be as drastic as insiders perceive. They appear to be nuanced reactions to broader cultural treads which are driving the narrative. Nonetheless, there are real differences in the ways they deal with these cultural forces. Analytical philosophy prioritizes epistemologyrefers to the study of the nature of knowledge and what justifies true knowledge as opposed to mere opinion. more, which is the study of the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge, and largely utilized linguistic models. Continental philosophy generally is more concerned with what is real, which is referred to as ontologyRefers to the branch of philosophy and metaphysics that deals with the nature of being. The word is derived from a Greek term meaning “theory of being.” more. Analytic philosophy prides itself on being more scientific than its counterpart. Proponents consider their work to be congruous with the natural sciences. They treat philosophical issues as problems that can be dissected and analyzed, independent from their historical and often cultural origins, just as natural scientists disregard the history of science during scientific inquiry.

Continental philosophy asks what can we trust? It rejects the assumption that the technical analytical approach can adequately address all of the factors that impact the issue being examined. Continental philosophers place emphasis on the variable conditions of human experience creating the context one needs to consider in addressing philosophical issues. It cannot be divorced from factors such as time, space, culture and language which always pay a role in human experience. Continental philosophy typically suggests that human agency can change these conditions and the outcome. Thus, continental philosophy tends to be interested in how theory plays out in personal, moral, and political ways. It’s philosophers generally are more interested in transforming society than analytic philosophers who are more focused on discovering truth.

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