The Holiness Movement, Seventh-day Adventists, and Jehovah’s Witnesses

Sanctification is a doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of most ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more denominations, but in practice it plays second fiddle to their doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of justificationThis term comes from the root Latin word “jus” meaning law or right and “Justus” meaning justice. The words “justification” and “righteous” are different translation of the same Latin word and literally means “becoming just.” The central issue of the... more. The focus is on being saved because no one can be perfect and fully sanctified until they go to heaven, where they will miraculously be transformed into a glorified, sanctified being. JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more Wesley(A.D. 1703–1791) Anglican priest, revival preacher and organizer, and together with his brother Charles, a founding figure of Methodism, whose theology combines Arminianism and Pietism and is known for a strong emphasis on sanctification, including the expectation that believers will... more, however, was deeply committed to sanctificationDerived from the Latin word sanctus for “holy” and literally means “becoming holy.” In most Protestant theology it refers to the process of become a more moral individual through an internal transformation following justification that occurs at the time of... more. He believed that true Christian conversionThis term is derived from the Latin word for “turning,” and is a theological term that refers to one turning his will from evil to good and is generally used to denote one becoming a Christian and/or joining a particular... more was evidenced by “a faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more that works by divine loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more in the crucible of everyday life” to sanctify the individual by renewing their hearts in God’s image.1

Like other Protestants, Wesley(A.D. 1703–1791) Anglican priest, revival preacher and organizer, and together with his brother Charles, a founding figure of Methodism, whose theology combines Arminianism and Pietism and is known for a strong emphasis on sanctification, including the expectation that believers will... more believed that humans are utterly depraved and any movement toward God is attributed to His graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more. He also concurred with Augustine(A.D. 354-430) Bishop of Hippo in North Africa, the most influential theologian of the West, known especially for his doctrine of grace, including related doctrines of original sin and predestination. more that God’s prevenient graceA term derived from the Latin word praevenire, meaning “to come before.” It refers to the grace of God that comes before an individual chooses to accept saving grace in faith in contrast to grace that is realized through faith.... more (graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more that precedes conversionThis term is derived from the Latin word for “turning,” and is a theological term that refers to one turning his will from evil to good and is generally used to denote one becoming a Christian and/or joining a particular... more) prepares an individual to receive His saving graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more at conversionThis term is derived from the Latin word for “turning,” and is a theological term that refers to one turning his will from evil to good and is generally used to denote one becoming a Christian and/or joining a particular... more when the Holy Spirit removes their “bent for sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more” and replaces it with a “bent to loving obedience.”2 But he believed that Christians can and should enjoy greater freedom from sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more than what Calvinist theologians believed was possible. Even though he agreed with other Protestants that converts can always continue to mature in their Christian life and loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more for God, he taught a theology of “optimism of graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more” in which Christians should not be “content with any religion that does not imply the destruction of all of the works of the devil, that is, of all sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more.”3

Unlike LutherMartin Luther (A.D. 1483–1546) German theologian, pastor, professor at the University of Wittenberg, ex-monk, and founding figure of Protestantism. He was known for his doctrine of justification by faith alone and his insistence on distinguishing between Law and Gospel. more, who taught that saved Christians always remain sinners and all their good deeds are mortal sinIs the Roman Catholic doctrine that various sins are so grave that they kill the new life in Christ that was conferred at baptism, and if a person dies in this state of mortal sin he or she goes to... more, and CalvinJohn Calvin (A.D. 1509-1564) French Protestant theologian who lived most of his adult life in Geneva. He was the most influential figure in Reformed theology and author of the Institutes, the most important systematic theology text of Protestantism. more who insisted that Christ’s righteousness is imputed to believers at the time of conversionThis term is derived from the Latin word for “turning,” and is a theological term that refers to one turning his will from evil to good and is generally used to denote one becoming a Christian and/or joining a particular... more regardless of their continued sins, Wesley(A.D. 1703–1791) Anglican priest, revival preacher and organizer, and together with his brother Charles, a founding figure of Methodism, whose theology combines Arminianism and Pietism and is known for a strong emphasis on sanctification, including the expectation that believers will... more believed that Christians who are mature in their faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more can be sanctified and free from willful sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more in this life. Wesley’s doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of entire sanctificationDerived from the Latin word sanctus for “holy” and literally means “becoming holy.” In most Protestant theology it refers to the process of become a more moral individual through an internal transformation following justification that occurs at the time of... more occurs when an individual fully accepts God’s sanctifying graceA Roman Catholic term referring to “grace that makes a person acceptable.” It is a supernatural and created “form” or habit that is infused into the soul of a Christian and make them righteous or justified before God in order... more so “the war within oneself might cease and the heart might be released from rebellion into whole hearted loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more for God and others.”4 He taught that through faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more, the loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more of God could reign supreme in believers’ hearts giving them inward as well as outward holiness. However, this did not mean they never made mistakes.

Wesley’s doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of entire sanctificationDerived from the Latin word sanctus for “holy” and literally means “becoming holy.” In most Protestant theology it refers to the process of become a more moral individual through an internal transformation following justification that occurs at the time of... more leans heavily on his vague definition of sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more. He believed that a Christian who has experienced entire sanctificationDerived from the Latin word sanctus for “holy” and literally means “becoming holy.” In most Protestant theology it refers to the process of become a more moral individual through an internal transformation following justification that occurs at the time of... more enjoys freedom from deliberate sins. Slip-ups in behavior can still occur, but these result from living in a fallen world. Wesley(A.D. 1703–1791) Anglican priest, revival preacher and organizer, and together with his brother Charles, a founding figure of Methodism, whose theology combines Arminianism and Pietism and is known for a strong emphasis on sanctification, including the expectation that believers will... more called these lapses “mistakes.” He said, “because we are imperfect persons in an imperfect world, perfectionIn Christian theology it refers to the Protestant (chiefly Methodist) doctrine and the Holiness tradition that entire sanctification (Holiness and perfection) is not only possible but standard for believers. more ‘in love’ is consistent with a ‘thousand mistakes.’ But limited as we are by our own and the world’s imperfections, we may still enjoy a relationship in which, through the power of the Holy Spirit, we can fulfill the great and final commandment of loving God with our whole heart.”4

The quest for sanctificationDerived from the Latin word sanctus for “holy” and literally means “becoming holy.” In most Protestant theology it refers to the process of become a more moral individual through an internal transformation following justification that occurs at the time of... more and living a holy life became central themes of Methodists. A Christian should diligently seek the graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more of God in faith so the Holy Spirit can purify the soul and give them a new heart full of loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more of God and neighbor.

Phoebe PalmerPhoebe Palmer (A.D. 1807–1874) American Methodist and Bible teacher, whose “shorter way” to the blessing of entire sanctification, “laying all on the altar,” made her the founding figure in the Holiness movement. more was a devout Methodist living in New York City seeking this experience of total sanctificationDerived from the Latin word sanctus for “holy” and literally means “becoming holy.” In most Protestant theology it refers to the process of become a more moral individual through an internal transformation following justification that occurs at the time of... more. She had an experience that changed her whole perspective and which still informs the ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more evangelicalComes from the Greek term, evangelion, and means good news or the Gospel. This term was use in the 16th century to refer to Protestants and is still used this way in Germany to this day. In England and the... more movement to this day.

Prior to Phoebe’s epiphany in 1836, sanctificationDerived from the Latin word sanctus for “holy” and literally means “becoming holy.” In most Protestant theology it refers to the process of become a more moral individual through an internal transformation following justification that occurs at the time of... more was a laborious long-term work for Methodists. She understood that the Holy Spirit sanctifies us through the grace of God, but humans needed to cooperate with that graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more. That was the long laborious part. However, one day as Phoebe prepared to pray, she laid everything on God’s altar: all her hopes, fears, desires, her whole self. As she pondered her status, fully expecting God would do something to sanctify her, she wondered, how could she know that God had accepted her offering? Then she asked herself, “Is this offering something that God wants?” Her answer was “Of course. He wants us to consecrate everything we have and are to Him. So, if this is what He wants, then it certainly is acceptable to Him.” Therefore, she concluded that He had accepted her sacrifice. She had an epiphany that she just needed to have enough faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more to believe it. She just needed to trust God. She did have that faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more, so she declared she had experienced full sanctificationDerived from the Latin word sanctus for “holy” and literally means “becoming holy.” In most Protestant theology it refers to the process of become a more moral individual through an internal transformation following justification that occurs at the time of... more, and everyone else could too. They could be sanctified right now, by just giving their all to God.6

She began holding meetings in her home on Tuesday nights for “the Promotion of Holiness” where she shared her experience and taught others how to realize immediate sanctificationDerived from the Latin word sanctus for “holy” and literally means “becoming holy.” In most Protestant theology it refers to the process of become a more moral individual through an internal transformation following justification that occurs at the time of... more. She teamed up with the PresbyterianA religion controlled at the local level by an assembly of elders or selected representatives. See polity and presbyters. Mainstream of English Puritanism in the 17th century were Presbyterians who sought to revive the original form of church government based... more minister Charles FinneyCharles Grandison Finney (A.D. 1792–1875) Presbyterian minister, theological heir of Jonathan Edwards, and the most prominent American Revivalist in the first half of the 19th century. more, and together they sparked the Holiness movementWas a Wesleyan movement founded in the 1830s in America by Methodist teacher Phoebe Palmer that advocated immediate perfection was obtainable through a special act of consecration by “laying all upon the altar” and thereby acquiring a “second blessing” of... more. Timothy Merritt founded the Guide to Holiness, and Phoebe later published the influential book The Way of Holiness. Phoebe, with the assistance of her sister, continued to hold these Tuesday night meetings for forty years, as well as numerous revival camp meetings with Charles FinneyCharles Grandison Finney (A.D. 1792–1875) Presbyterian minister, theological heir of Jonathan Edwards, and the most prominent American Revivalist in the first half of the 19th century. more, where their message of inner sanctificationDerived from the Latin word sanctus for “holy” and literally means “becoming holy.” In most Protestant theology it refers to the process of become a more moral individual through an internal transformation following justification that occurs at the time of... more of the heart gained traction across denominational lines.

Phoebe Palmer’s teachings inspired the trans-denominational Keswick(A.D. 1875) The Keswick movement begins in a meeting of Presbyterians and Anglicans in Keswick, England. The movement developed out of the non-Methodist (non-perfectionist) arm of the Holiness movement and took hold in America. It emphasized yielding to the Holy... more movement. It began in England in 1875 and appealed to all Christians.

From the beginning until the very present (the Keswick(A.D. 1875) The Keswick movement begins in a meeting of Presbyterians and Anglicans in Keswick, England. The movement developed out of the non-Methodist (non-perfectionist) arm of the Holiness movement and took hold in America. It emphasized yielding to the Holy... more movement) has taught that a life of faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more and victory, of peace and rest, are the rightful heritage of every child of God, and that he may step into it …, “not by long prayers and laborious effort, but by a deliberate and decisive act of faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more.” It teaches that “the normal experience of the child of God should be one of victory instead of constant defeat, one of liberty instead of grinding bondage, one of ‘perfect peace’ instead of restless worry.”7

The Keswick(A.D. 1875) The Keswick movement begins in a meeting of Presbyterians and Anglicans in Keswick, England. The movement developed out of the non-Methodist (non-perfectionist) arm of the Holiness movement and took hold in America. It emphasized yielding to the Holy... more movement has continued into the twenty-first century with their annual conventions still attracting thousands of conservative Christians seeking to live a holier and happier life.

In 1831, William Miller(A.D. 1782–1849) William Miller was a Baptist preacher in America who started the Millerism religious movement based on Miller’s predictions of an impending second coming (advent) of Christ. After Miller’s predictions did not come true, Millerism morphed into other Adventist... more proclaimed that Jesus would physically return to earth in a glorious event between 1843 and 1844 to cleanse the earth by fire. He based his prediction on his study of the Bible and particularly the Book of Daniel(c. 615–515 B.C.) An Old Testament prophet known for surviving being thrown into a den of lions and for interpreting dreams. His prophetic writings regarding the end of time have captivated the attention of many Christian writers. more. He used a formula of one day representing one year and applied to a 2,300-day period before the temple sanctuary would be cleansed as found in Daniel(c. 615–515 B.C.) An Old Testament prophet known for surviving being thrown into a den of lions and for interpreting dreams. His prophetic writings regarding the end of time have captivated the attention of many Christian writers. more 4:18. He was convinced this was a coded message regarding a 2,300-year period between the 457 BCE decree to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem and the cleansing that would occur at the time of the Lord’s second coming.

At first, people did not give his prediction much credence, but this was during the second great awakening, when religious fervor abounded, so it began to attract attention. As the designated year approached, more and more people believed, and the Millerite movement became widespread and popular in America. That is, until the Great DisappointmentIn 1831, William Miller proclaimed that Jesus would physically return to earth in a glorious event between 1843 and 1844 to cleanse the earth by fire. He based his prediction on his study of the Bible and particularly the Book of more, when Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more did not miraculously return on October 22, 1844, as Miller(A.D. 1782–1849) William Miller was a Baptist preacher in America who started the Millerism religious movement based on Miller’s predictions of an impending second coming (advent) of Christ. After Miller’s predictions did not come true, Millerism morphed into other Adventist... more had prophesied. The movement and congregations were shattered with a myriad of explanations but continued as a general Adventist movement through the end of the century. One group followed Hiram Edson’s belief that this date referred to a cleansing in heaven that would occur before Christ’s second coming (the “sanctuary doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more”). The Seventh-day Adventist Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more arose out of this group and was officially organized in 1863.8

Ellen G. White (1827–1915) was seventeen years old when the Great DisappointmentIn 1831, William Miller proclaimed that Jesus would physically return to earth in a glorious event between 1843 and 1844 to cleanse the earth by fire. He based his prediction on his study of the Bible and particularly the Book of more occurred. She was raised in a large devout Methodist family that was expelled from the congregation because they had accepted Miller’s teachings, so this nonevent was devasting for them. However, two months later, she told people she had received a message from God that what they had learned about the literal second coming of Christ was correct, but it was an error to set a specific date for it to occur. She spread her message and encouraged believers to study the Bible to discover its inspiring truths. She married James White and became an influential writer, Biblical scholar and original spiritual guide for the Seventh-day Adventists.

Early on, Seventh-day Adventists went through a transitional period when the diverse beliefs of its members coalesced into the fundamental beliefs they espouse today. Initially, there was confusion as to whether they would follow Semi-Arian or Trinitarian ideas regarding the Godhead. They eventually adopted a statement of twenty-eight fundamental beliefs that echo traditional ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more ideas except for 1) their defining practice of holding Saturday as the correct day of worship instead of Sunday, 2) accepting Ellen’s gift of prophesy, and 3) their sanctuary doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more mentioned earlier.  Seventh-day Adventist’s stress the importance of personal Bible study. They also place a strong emphasis on health and diet and treating the whole personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more: physical, spiritual and emotional. They partake of Holy CommunionIs a term many Christians use to refer to sacrament of the Lord’s Supper commemorating Jesus’s last Passover meal with his Twelve Apostles, and Jesus’ atoning sacrifice. During this ritual the faithful eat bread, representing the body of Christ, and... more four times a year, commencing with a foot-washing ceremony called the ordinance of humility. The Seventh-day Adventist Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more is one of the fastest growing Christian denominations in the world with over 25 million active members worshipping in their congregations each SabbathThe sacred day each week set apart by Jews and Christians for rest and worship. Jews celebrate from sundown Friday to Sundown Saturday as a reminder of God resting on the seventh day after the creation. Christians moved the day... more day.9

The Jehovah’s Witnesses is another denomination that grew out of the nineteenth-century Adventist movement. Charles Taze Russell became known as a controversial Adventist teacher and founded the International Bible Students Association in 1872. He rejected the concept of hell in favor of annihilation of the soul. He also rejected Trinitarian theology regarding God. He emphasized the divinity of God the Father, minimized or even denied the divinity of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more and referred to him as God’s agent, and said that the Holy Spirit was the title of God’s active force in the world. He taught that Christ’s second coming involved an invisible presence, and the millennial dawn had already occurred in 1874, which would be followed by his visible advent in 1914 when he would establish his millennial kingdom on earth. Even though this prediction did not occur, his teachings survived. Russell formed the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania (1884) and organized volunteers to distribute his books and pamphlets including his Watchtower periodical.

Judge Joseph Franklin Rutherford succeeded Russel and led the organization until 1942. Rutherford changed the name of the organization to Jehovah’s Witnesses in 1931 to emphasize its distinguishing beliefs regarding the Godhead and their mission to be His witnesses of the truth. He mobilized his followers into a tightly knit organization of dedicated evangelists spreading their message. His successor, Nathan Homer Knorr, expanded their operation by creating the Watch Tower Bible School of Gilead (South Lansing, New York) to train leaders and set up an educational system to instruct potential converts. Under his direction, the Jehovah’s Witnesses published their own translation of the Bible, with significant differences from other translations. There are currently about eight million baptized members throughout the world.10

Like the Anabaptists(A.D. 1525) Derived from a Greek word meaning “rebaptizers,” due to adherents’ insistence that infant baptism was not valid and that one must make a informed voluntary commitment as part of a baptismal covenant in order for the baptism to... more, the Witnesses stress a strict separation of church and state. The believe that God established governments to maintain peace and order in society, but they refuse to obey various laws based in their interpretation of the Bible. They are conscientious objectors and refuse to serve in the military or salute the flag of any nation. They also have faced legal conflicts because of their opposition to various medical practices, such as blood transfusions. Many Witnesses have been imprisoned over the years and the US Supreme Court has heard several of their appeals, creating a stronger right of religious freedom in the United States than was previously acknowledged.

The official website of the Jehovah’s Witnesses provides the following summary of their basic beliefsare so basic of a belief that they form the foundation of the structure of all other related beliefs so that they do not require evidence from other beliefs to establish their truth. more:

The Holiness movementWas a Wesleyan movement founded in the 1830s in America by Methodist teacher Phoebe Palmer that advocated immediate perfection was obtainable through a special act of consecration by “laying all upon the altar” and thereby acquiring a “second blessing” of... more was a major development in evangelicalComes from the Greek term, evangelion, and means good news or the Gospel. This term was use in the 16th century to refer to Protestants and is still used this way in Germany to this day. In England and the... more Protestantism. Seventh-day Adventists and Jehovah’s Witnesses are two ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more denominations which stand out from mainline Protestantism due to their distinct doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more and practices.

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