The Enlightenment and Deism
René Descartes
I was in Germany then, where the wars—which are still continuing there—called me; and while I was returning to the army from the coronation of the emperor, the onset of winter held me up in quarters where, finding no conversation with which to be diverted and, fortunately, otherwise having no worries or passions which troubled me, I remained for a whole day by myself in a small stove-heated room, where I had complete leisure for communing with my thoughts.1
He contemplates his earlier education under the tutelage of the Jesuits based on Aristotle’s philosophy and system of nature as reinterpreted by Thomas Aquinas(c. A.D. 1225-1274) Dominican friar, teacher at the University of Paris, central figure of medieval scholasticism, and the most authoritative theologian of the Roman Catholic tradition; known for his use of Aristotelian philosophy and his conception of supernatural grace. more:
As soon as I had completed this entire course of study, at the end of which one is ordinarily received into the ranks of the learned, I changed my mind entirely. For I was embarrassed by so many doubts and errors, which appeared in no way to profit me in my attempt at learning, except that more and more I discovered my ignorance. . . . [I took] great pleasure in mathematics because of the certainty and evidence of its arguments, … On the other hand, I compared the writings of the ancient pagans who discuss morals to very proud and magnificent palaces that are built on nothing but sand and mud.2
Our solitary traveler, René DescartesRene Descartes (1596–1650) introduced the scientific method based on the premise that all learning is derived from inductive reasoning based on observations. more, realized that his society’s whole foundation of truth and knowledge was flawed. He knew that to build any sound edifice, one must first raze the flimsy structures that clutter the ground in order to construct the new building on a solid foundation. While sitting next to the stove in this meditative state, he decided to engage in a mental experiment of radical doubt. As he described it:
[I decided to] reject as absolute false everything in which I could imagine the least doubt, so as to see whether, after this process, if anything in my set of beliefs remains that is entirely indubitable. [I must not accept] anything as true that I did not know evidently to be so; that is, carefully to avoid precipitous judgment and prejudice; and to include nothing more in my judgment than what presented itself to my mind with such clarity and distinctiveness that I would have no occasion to put it in doubt.3
I noticed that, during this time I wanted thus to think that everything was false, it was necessary that I, who thought must be something. And noticing this truth—I think, therefore I am—was so firm and so certain that the most extravagant supposition of the skeptics were unable to shake it, I judged that I could accept it without scruple as the first principle of the philosophy I was seeking.4
Baruch Spinoza
New Political Theories
During this time of religious conflict and philosophical upheaval, Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) introduced a new way of thinking about the relationship between religion, politics and society. In 1651, he published his book Leviathan, which introduced his political theory of a social contract with strong separation of church and state. Hobbes posited the revolutionary idea that political authority is based on the self-interest of the individual members of society, who understood that they were all equal while ceding absolute authority to the state to maintain order.
John LockeJohn Locke (1632–1704) applied the scientific method of using empirical observations to determine the strength of philosophical and theological ideas. more (1632–1704) tweaked Descartes’ and Hobbes’ ideas and combined them with his strong belief in natural laws, creating a philosophy that became the foundation of the EnlightenmentA broad term for 18th century European intellectual developments, including deism and other movements critical of orthodox Christianity, that are characteristically modern, emphasizing reason against tradition and authority. Refers to the period of intellectual and cultural development in Europe and... more in general and deismAn 18th-century Enlightenment theology in which is based on the idea that reason can discover universal truths of religion (Natural Religion) and that God is like a watch maker who created the universe and set it in motion but does... more in particular. Unlike DescartesRene Descartes (1596–1650) introduced the scientific method based on the premise that all learning is derived from inductive reasoning based on observations. more, who believed that humans were born with innate rational ideas, LockeJohn Locke (1632–1704) applied the scientific method of using empirical observations to determine the strength of philosophical and theological ideas. more insisted that the human mind starts out as a blank slate. LockeJohn Locke (1632–1704) applied the scientific method of using empirical observations to determine the strength of philosophical and theological ideas. more believed that impressions implanted simple ideas which human reason then used to construct more complex concepts, which were then organized into knowledge. This process became known as empiricismrefers to the theory that true knowledge is based on experience. more.
LockeJohn Locke (1632–1704) applied the scientific method of using empirical observations to determine the strength of philosophical and theological ideas. more also believed that natural laws were not restricted to the physical sciences but were incorporated in all aspects of existence including religion, politics and the economyderived from the Greek term, oikonomia, for “steward” or “household management,” is a term used to describe a plan of salvation through Christ and is not to be confused with the current usage of this word.. In Eastern Orthodox theology,... more. He believed that society could be improved by discovering and applying these natural laws. He proffered the concept of a universal, natural, moral lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more for humanity. These ideas informed his commitment to classical liberalism, which holds that the central point of political institutions is maintaining individual freedoms. Driven by these principles, LockeJohn Locke (1632–1704) applied the scientific method of using empirical observations to determine the strength of philosophical and theological ideas. more expanded Hobbes’s social contract concept to formulate a strong argument for a representative form of government.7
Jean-Jacques RousseauJean-Jacque Rousseau (A.D. 1712–1778) was a philosopher born in Geneva, Switzerland. He authored The Social Contract which became a cornerstone of modern political theory, and famous for dramatic lines, such as: “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in... more (1712–1778) built on these ideas and described three stages of human social development: first, the state of nature, in which humans are independent and free; second, society, where man is oppressed and dependent on others; and finally stage three, in which society evolves to the state of a social contract and, ironically, humans regain their independence by voluntarily participating in the creation of communally developed lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more.8
Age of Enlightenment
This was a revolutionary time when Western civilization faced a crisis regarding authority. The established norm of the three estates of social status was shattered by the social mobility that grew out of expanding free enterprise, which flowed from the dramatic advancement in exploration and world trade, increasing urbanization throughout the continent. Not only was the authority of the one Christian Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more challenged, but scripture itself also seemed ambiguous and even incoherent. The established scientific philosophy was rejected wholesale, to be replaced by the novelty of a new system that was continually changing. No longer were ancient texts the authority to establish truth; individual rationality became the new standard. Even the political system was in upheaval, with the monarchy in England being replaced by a representative form of government through a bloody civil war, only to be reinstalled a couple of decades later. Overall, this was a period when the value of the individual broke out of its traditional cage to usher in a new age of opportunity.
Without an accepted authority to determine truth, LockeJohn Locke (1632–1704) applied the scientific method of using empirical observations to determine the strength of philosophical and theological ideas. more proposed using the strength of scientific evidence as the criteria to determine all truth, including religious. The strength of your belief is proportional to the strength of your evidence to back it up. So, unlike DescartesRene Descartes (1596–1650) introduced the scientific method based on the premise that all learning is derived from inductive reasoning based on observations. more, who tried to use reason based on the assumption of an innate human concept of a god to prove that there was a God, LockeJohn Locke (1632–1704) applied the scientific method of using empirical observations to determine the strength of philosophical and theological ideas. more looked to the miracles as the evidence to support the proposition that Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more was divine. This approach regarding religion was challengedby David Hume, who said that it would take a miracle to believe a miracle.9
This environment, married with the scientific revolution, gave birth to the optimistic period known as the EnlightenmentA broad term for 18th century European intellectual developments, including deism and other movements critical of orthodox Christianity, that are characteristically modern, emphasizing reason against tradition and authority. Refers to the period of intellectual and cultural development in Europe and... more and the Age of ReasonThe capacity to logically and consciously establish facts and prioritize values. Reason is often considered to be a distinctly human capacity. Christianity considers it to be a unique gift to humanity, that through reason humanity is made in God’s likeness.... more, which flowed through Europe and crossed the sea to the colonies in the eighteenth century. This was an intellectual movement that emphasized reason, scientific discovery, progress, individual rights, liberty, equality, fraternity, representative and constitutional forms of government, separation of church and state, and was skeptical of religious orthodoxy, giving rise to deismAn 18th-century Enlightenment theology in which is based on the idea that reason can discover universal truths of religion (Natural Religion) and that God is like a watch maker who created the universe and set it in motion but does... more. Unlike the humanistA scholar during the Renaissance movement who sought to recover a more historically accurate understanding of ancient languages and literature, including pagan classics, the Bible and the writings of the early church fathers. Some of the most notable Christian humanists... more, who looked back to the classical Greco-Roman period for insight, the intellectuals of the EnlightenmentA broad term for 18th century European intellectual developments, including deism and other movements critical of orthodox Christianity, that are characteristically modern, emphasizing reason against tradition and authority. Refers to the period of intellectual and cultural development in Europe and... more looked to science and human reason to usher in a bright new future.10
Deism: The Search for a Reasonable God
The French philosopher and writer Voltaire(A.D. 1694-1778) Pen name of François Marie Arouet, a popular French writer, satirist, and critic of Christianity during the Enlightenment. He was a bitter and scathing critic of the clergy. Instead, he viewed natural religion as a necessity for human... more epitomized the EnlightenmentA broad term for 18th century European intellectual developments, including deism and other movements critical of orthodox Christianity, that are characteristically modern, emphasizing reason against tradition and authority. Refers to the period of intellectual and cultural development in Europe and... more. He was a satirical genius who became famous for his wit in criticizing Christianity and authority, for which he was imprisoned twice and lived in exile to avoid the further legal repercussions of his views. Regardless, he remained very popular for his humor and sound reasoning. He was a staunch supporter of freedom of speech, especially when it involved religion. He advocated for the separation of church and state and a representative form of governance. Voltaire(A.D. 1694-1778) Pen name of François Marie Arouet, a popular French writer, satirist, and critic of Christianity during the Enlightenment. He was a bitter and scathing critic of the clergy. Instead, he viewed natural religion as a necessity for human... more articulated a strong argument supporting the concept of a natural religionRefers to a religion developed during the Enlightenment based on reason in contrast to revelation, i.e. “positive” religion such as Judaism and traditional Christianity. Its proponents believed that the true universal religion consisted of Judeo-Christian moral teachings stripped of non-rational... more based on universal moral lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more and said “If God did not exist, we would need to invent Him,” and “Christianity is assuredly the most ridiculous, the most absurd and the most bloody religion which has ever infected this world.”11 This brilliant, witty, unorthodox intellectual made waves that transcended the space and time of the early modern world.
The scientific revolution raised the question of what roles would reason and religion play in the modern world. We have seen how DescartesRene Descartes (1596–1650) introduced the scientific method based on the premise that all learning is derived from inductive reasoning based on observations. more rejected all the authorities of the past to establish reason as the new arbiter of truth which he used in an attempt to prove the existence of God. SpinozaBaruch Spinoza (A.D. 1632–1677) was a Jewish-Dutch philosopher. Spinoza employed many of the concepts of Medieval scholastics with the Cartesian method of reasoning to present a radically reformed concept of God and humanity’s relation to God. more doubted the existence of a personal God and holy writ, but LockeJohn Locke (1632–1704) applied the scientific method of using empirical observations to determine the strength of philosophical and theological ideas. more felt it was reasonable to believe in a God based on the evidence of the miracles recorded in the Bible. Voltaire(A.D. 1694-1778) Pen name of François Marie Arouet, a popular French writer, satirist, and critic of Christianity during the Enlightenment. He was a bitter and scathing critic of the clergy. Instead, he viewed natural religion as a necessity for human... more rejected Christianity in favor of a natural religionRefers to a religion developed during the Enlightenment based on reason in contrast to revelation, i.e. “positive” religion such as Judaism and traditional Christianity. Its proponents believed that the true universal religion consisted of Judeo-Christian moral teachings stripped of non-rational... more based on universal moral lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more. We endwith David Hume (1711–1776), who questioned the rationality of all religion, including the deist natural religionRefers to a religion developed during the Enlightenment based on reason in contrast to revelation, i.e. “positive” religion such as Judaism and traditional Christianity. Its proponents believed that the true universal religion consisted of Judeo-Christian moral teachings stripped of non-rational... more.
Hume attacked the logic of religion in a fictional debate between advocates of the various arguments supporting the existence of God. The first straw man to fall was the deeply religious fellow who stressed the sovereignty of God and his incomprehensible nature. That argument didn’t fly in the Age of ReasonThe capacity to logically and consciously establish facts and prioritize values. Reason is often considered to be a distinctly human capacity. Christianity considers it to be a unique gift to humanity, that through reason humanity is made in God’s likeness.... more. Next, he dethroned the advocate who appealed to the rational deists who pointed to the order in the universe based on natural law as evidence of intelligent design. Hume countered by pointing out that this designer could not be a benevolent all-powerful God because of the numerous natural disasters which we refer to as acts of God. The world does not run perfectly like an infallible machine. He then addressed Aristotle’s and Plotinus’s model of nature itself having a Divine Soul that was the source of the ordered cosmosthe idea that the universe is one harmonious and orderly system. more. He argued that we can’t really know the absolute truth of how physics works. All we can do is reach reasonable conclusions based on observed reoccurring patterns. A ball moves every time it is hit by another ball, so it is reasonable to believe that the ball hitting it makes the first ball move, but we don’t really know why. If we can only make rational conclusions based on the observance of repeated patterns, it is impossible to have a rational opinion regarding creation, which only occurred once. Why does there have to be an outside creative force or soul? Why couldn’t the organizing life source simply be an intrinsic part of the world itself? HumeDavid Hume (1711–1776) used John Locke's standard to declare that it would take a miracle to believe a miracle. more argued that we will never be able to know the answers to these questions, so there is no rational basis for religion.
David Hume is regarded as the founder of modern atheistic thought, even though he never publicly professed to be an atheistA person who denies the existence of all deity. more. If there was no God, then there was no basis for a belief in the divine right of kings. Instead, he proposed a political structure based on the concept of a social contract between individuals and the government. He believed that religion and political institutions were human constructs to help people deal with the vicissitudes of life. His famous statement that life is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short” sums up his view of human existence. He felt that religion exacerbated this condition by creating conflict. It is easy to see why he came to this conclusion in the midst of a century of religious wars that devastated Europe.12
Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy
by René Descartes
This edition contains Donald Cress’s completely revised translation of the Meditations (from the corrected Latin edition) and recent corrections to Discourse on Method, bringing this version even closer to Descartes’s original, while maintaining the clear and accessible style of a classic teaching edition.
Spinoza Collection: Ethics, Theologico-Political Treatise, On the Improvement of the Understanding
by Baruch Spinoza
Three books in one. In one volume, three of Baruch Spinoza’s most important and influential philosophical works. Included in this volume:
Ethics, Theologico-Politcal Treatise, On the Improvement of the Understanding. This edition uses versions of these treatises published in 1901, translated by R.H.M. Elwes (1853-1892). Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) was a Dutch philosopher renowned for his contributions to the fields of metaphysics, ethics, and political philosophy. A highly influential figure, Spinoza has been credited with laying the foundations for the Age of Enlightenment. His works, including the Ethics and the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, have had an immense effect on subsequent generations of thinkers. Spinoza was born in Amsterdam to a family of Portuguese Sephardic Jews. He attended a Jewish school in Amsterdam, and then began to study Latin, Hebrew, and philosophy. His views on religion, particularly on Judaism, were controversial and led to him being excommunicated from the Jewish community in 1656. He continued to work as a lens grinder and to write, publishing his major works, the Ethics and the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, in 1676 and 1670 respectively. Spinoza’s philosophy is characterized by a pantheistic view of the world, in which he argued that God and nature are one and the same. His views on the nature of God, free will, and morality have had a profound impact on subsequent generations of philosophers. He argued that true knowledge is only obtained through reason and that faith alone is not sufficient to provide knowledge. He believed that knowledge should be pursued for its own sake, not just for the sake of obtaining rewards. Spinoza’s writings have been widely influential, and his works have been studied and discussed by many of the greatest thinkers of the past centuries. His legacy continues to be felt today, with his influence being seen in many modern philosophical movements. His works continue to inspire and challenge contemporary thinkers, and his ideas remain relevant to this day.
The Essential John Locke Collection
by John Locke
A collection of his most important works: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Complete), The First & Second Treatises of Government. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding lays out John Locke’s position concerning the foundation of human knowledge and understanding. It first appeared in 1689 (although dated 1690) with the printed title An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding. He describes the mind at birth as a blank slate (tabula rasa, although he did not use those actual words) filled later through experience. The essay was one of the principal sources of empiricism in modern philosophy, and influenced many enlightenment philosophers, such as David Hume and George Berkeley. Book I of the Essay is Locke’s attempt to refute the rationalist notion of innate ideas. Book II sets out Locke’s theory of ideas, including his distinction between passively acquired simple ideas, such as “red,” “sweet,” “round,” etc., and actively built complex ideas, such as numbers, causes and effects, abstract ideas, ideas of substances, identity, and diversity. Locke also distinguishes between the truly existing primary qualities of bodies, like shape, motion and the arrangement of minute particles, and the secondary qualities that are “powers to produce various sensations in us” such as “red” and “sweet.” These secondary qualities, Locke claims, are dependent on the primary qualities. He also offers a theory of personal identity, offering a largely psychological criterion. Book III is concerned with language, and Book IV with knowledge, including intuition, mathematics, moral philosophy, natural philosophy (“science”), faith, and opinion. The First & Second Treatises of Government, Two Treatises of Government (or Two Treatises of Government: In the Former, The False Principles, and Foundation of Sir Robert Filmer, and His Followers, Are Detected and Overthrown. The Latter Is an Essay Concerning The True Original, Extent, and End of Civil Government) is a work of political philosophy published anonymously in 1689 by John Locke. The First Treatise attacks patriarchalism in the form of sentence-by-sentence refutation of Robert Filmer’s Patriarcha, while the Second Treatise outlines Locke’s ideas for a more civilized society based on natural rights and contract theory. This publication contrasts former political works by Locke himself. In Two Tracts on Government, written in 1660, Locke defends a very conservative position; however, Locke never published it. In 1669, Locke co-authored the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina, which endorses aristocracy, slavery and serfdom. Some dispute the extent to which the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina portray Locke’s own philosophy, vs. that of the Lord proprietors of the colony; the document was a legal document written for and signed and sealed by the eight Lord proprietors to whom Charles II had granted the colony. In this context, Locke was only a paid secretary, writing it much as a lawyer writes a will.
by Jean-Jacques Rousseau
A new edition collecting Jean-Jacques Rosseau’s most essential and influential political writings. Included in this volume are:
The Social Contract, originally published in 1762
Discourse on the Origins of Inequality, originally published in 1754
Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, originally published in 1750
Discourse on Political Economy, originally published in 1755
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a philosopher, author and political theorist who lived in the 18th century and is considered one of the most influential thinkers of the Enlightenment. He was born in Geneva, Switzerland in 1712 and died in 1778. Rousseau’s ideas had a profound impact on the development of modern political thought, particularly in terms of his advocacy for democracy and the rights of the individual. He was a major influence on the French Revolution and the development of the modern social contract. Rousseau’s most famous works include The Social Contract, his autobiography Confessions, and his novel Emile. His ideas on education and government were revolutionary for the time an had a lasting impact on the way people think about these topics. He was a strong advocate for democracy, believing that it was the only form of government that could protect the rights of the individual. He also argued for a more equitable distribution of wealth and resources and believed that people should be free to pursue their own interests. Rousseau’s philosophy has been widely studied and discussed since his death, and his works continue to be read and discussed today. He is considered one of the most important figures of the Enlightenment and his legacy of political and social reform lives on. His work has profoundly shaped modern political thought and continues to be an important reference point for political theorists and philosopher.
by Voltaire
Explore the diverse and prolific works of Voltaire, one of the greatest writers and philosophers of the Enlightenment. This comprehensive collection is organized by theme, showcasing his mastery across genres, including fiction, plays, poetry, and philosophical treatises.
Fiction:
Candide – A satirical novella that critiques optimism and examines human folly through the journey of Candide and his companions.
Micromégas – A philosophical story about interplanetary travel that critiques human pretensions and narrow-mindedness.
Zadig – A tale of fate and morality set in ancient Babylon, following the trials of the noble Zadig.
The Ingenuous (L’Ingénu) – A story of an outsider’s view of French society, filled with wit and critique of social norms.
Plays:
Oedipus – Voltaire’s early tragedy that explores fate, guilt, and the human condition.
Alzire – A drama set in Peru, exploring themes of cultural conflict and love.
Merope – A tragedy inspired by classical themes of justice and familial loyalty.
The Orphan of China – A play about sacrifice and honor, inspired by Chinese legends.
Poetry:
The Henriade – An epic poem celebrating King Henry IV of France, focusing on themes of religious tolerance and heroism.
The Lisbon Earthquake – A reflective poem on the Lisbon earthquake of 1755, questioning divine justice and human suffering.
Epistle to Urania – A lyrical piece exploring themes of love, philosophy, and reason.
Philosophical Treatises:
Letters on England – Observations on English society, politics, and religion, offering a comparative critique of French institutions.
Philosophical Dictionary – A collection of essays on various topics, showcasing Voltaire’s wit and sharp critique of dogma.
Essays on Customs and the Spirit of Nations – A sweeping examination of history, cultures, and the progress of civilization.
On Tolerance – A passionate plea for religious freedom and understanding, inspired by real historical events.
Discover the Enlightenment through Voltaire’s timeless works, which continue to inspire and provoke thought on morality, society, and human nature.
by Voltaire
Includes Part One of Candide; three stories; selections from The Philosophical Dictionary, The Lisbon Earthquake, and other works; and thirty-five letters.
by Will Durant
Discourse on the Origin of Inequality
by Jean-Jacques Rousseau
"Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men" is a philosophical essay by Jean-Jacques Rousseau that explores the origins and nature of inequality among humans, arguing that moral inequality is a product of civil society and convention. Donald Cress's highly regarded translation, based on the critical Pléiade edition of 1964, is here issued with a lively introduction by James Miller, who brings into sharp focus the cultural and intellectual milieu in which Rousseau operated. This new edition includes a select bibliography, a note on the text, a translator’s note, and Rousseau’s own Notes on the Discourse.
by David Hume
A Treatise of Human Nature is the first work ever published by David Hume, a man who revolutionized our understanding of philosophy. Hume was an advocate of the skeptical school of philosophy and a key figure in the Scottish Enlightenment. He looks at the nature of human experience and cognition, showing that philosophy and reason can only be reflections of our nature. The naturalistic science of man that Hume expresses in this work forms the foundation for all later philosophical inquiry. Kant gave Hume credit for "awakening [him] from his dogmatic slumber". With this influence alone, Hume initiated the clearest critique of reason that Western civilization has produced in the history of philosophy. Hume's work formed the psychological foundation for modern psychology. He showed the limits and proper application of reason in human life. He also examined the passions and morality, showing how they arise in human experience and how they are connected to both reason and action. In essence, A Treatise of Human Nature is a thorough, well-considered, and inspired examination of human psychology and the implications that the structure of our thought and experience has on our knowledge. The full narration of Hume's text is preceded by a summary, which includes a biography, background information on the work, and an overview of the material covered. The summary also includes a synopsis and analysis of the text as well as an examination of its historical context, its social impact, and the criticisms it evoked. This work is suitable for students of philosophy or psychology or for anyone interested in coming to a deeper understanding of the nature of the mind.
The Roads to Modernity: The British, French, and American Enlightenments
by Gertrude Himmelfarb
In an elegant, eminently readable work, one of our most distinguished intellectual historians gives us a brilliant revisionist history. The Roads to Modernity reclaims the Enlightenment–an extraordinary time bursting with new ideas about human nature, politics, society, and religion--from historians who have downgraded its importance and from scholars who have given preeminence to the Enlightenment in France over concurrent movements in England and America. Contrasting the Enlightenments in the three nations, Himmelfarb demonstrates the primacy and wisdom of the British, exemplified in such thinkers as Adam Smith, David Hume, and Edmund Burke, as well as the unique and enduring contributions of the American Founders. It is their Enlightenments, she argues, that created a social ethic–humane, compassionate, and realistic–that still resonates strongly today, in America perhaps even more than in Europe. The Roads to Modernity is a remarkable and illuminating contribution to the history of ideas.
What if the greatest crisis of our time wasn’t political, economic, or even scientific, but spiritual? The Human Quest for Meaning, presents an unflinching, scholarly, and soul-searching excavation of humanity’s deepest longings. This work cuts through the fog of postmodern relativism and the sterile worship of science to confront the core dilemma of our time: why does a civilization without God still hunger for transcendence? Drawing from ethnological studies, ancient texts, and forgotten philosophical wisdom, Hallstrom traces the arc of religious and philosophical history; not to convert, but to clarify. In a world obsessed with novelty, this book dares to remember.
In this book, readers will delve into the surprising belief systems of some of the most primitive cultures, exploring why they revered a moral Supreme Being contrary to modern theories of religious evolution. The text also revisits the foundations of Christianity, not as dogma, but as a cultural and metaphysical force that shaped the Western mind. The book further explores how modern secularism has gradually replaced meaning with a mechanistic worldview and why this replacement is now collapsing. It presents concise, accessible summaries of major world religions, from Hinduism and Buddhism to Islam, Sikhism, Taoism, and Zoroastrianism to help broaden a reader’s global spiritual literacy.
In the face of cultural amnesia, this work offers clarity and equips readers with the tools to forge their own enduring philosophy of life. Hallstrom writes with scholarly rigor but aims for accessibility, avoiding dry academic jargon while still delivering a serious intellectual exploration that reads smoothly like a story. While books on religion and philosophy are not new, Hallstrom brings a refreshingly countercultural lens.
Whether you’re a skeptic, a seeker, or a believer, The Human Quest for Meaning will challenge your assumptions, deepen your worldview, and perhaps even awaken something within you.
Available in hardback, audio, paperback and e‑book.
Christian Theology: An Introduction 6th Edition
by Alister E. McGrath
“The genius of Alister E. McGrath is his remarkable ability to write in a clear, concise, and lucid manner that draws both teachers and students to participate with the great thinkers of the Christian tradition, past and present. Education and illumination are the abundant fruits of this massive, well-organized text, which is sure to appeal to a wide range of Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox audiences. For this we are indebted to the author.” Dennis Ngien, Professor of Systematic Theology, Tyndale University College and Seminary, Toronto, Canada. “For sheer comprehensiveness, clarity, and coherence, Alister McGrath has produced the definitive textbook. Always accurate and engaging, students are gently introduced to the gift of Theology in a memorable way.” Ian S. Markham, Dean and President of Virginia Theological Seminary.
by Alister E. McGrath
Regarded as the leading text in Christian theology for the last 25 years, Alister E. McGrath’s The Christian Theology Reader is now available in a new 5th edition featuring completely revised and updated content. It brings together more than 350 readings from over 200 sources that chart 2,000 years of Christian history, situates each reading within the appropriate historical and theological context with its own introduction, commentary, and study questions, includes new readings on world Christianity and feminist, liberation, and postcolonial theologies, as well as more selections by female theologians and theologians from the developing world, and contains additional pedagogical features, such as new discussion questions and case studies, and a robust website with new videos by the author to aid student learning. It is designed to function as a stand-alone volume, or as a companion to Christian Theology: An Introduction, 6th edition, for a complete overview of the subject.
Church History in Plain Language
by Bruce Shelley and Marshall Shelley
Bruce Shelley's classic history of the church brings the story of global Christianity into the twenty-first century. Like a skilled screenwriter, Shelley begins each chapter with three elements: characters, setting, plot. Taking readers from the early centuries of the church up through the modern era he tells his readers a story of actual people, in a particular situation, taking action or being acted upon, provides a window into the circumstances and historical context, and from there develops the story of a major period or theme of Christian history. Covering recent events, this book also: Details the rapid growth of evangelical and Pentecostal Christianity in the southern hemisphere; Addresses the decline in traditional mainline denominations; Examines the influence of technology on the spread of the gospel; Discusses how Christianity intersects with other religions in countries all over the world. For this fifth edition, Marshall Shelley brought together a team of historians, historical theologians, and editors to revise and update this father's classic text. The new edition adds important stories of the development of Christianity in Asia, India, and Africa, both in the early church as well as in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. It also highlights the stories of women and non-Europeans who significantly influenced the development of Christianity but whose contributions are often overlooked in previous overviews of church history. This concise book provides an easy-to-read guide to church history with intellectual substance. The new edition of Church History in Plain Language promises to set a new standard for readable church history.
Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years
by Diarmaid MacCulloch
The New York Times bestseller and definitive history of Christianity for our time—from the award-winning author of The Reformation and Silence. A product of electrifying scholarship conveyed with commanding skill, Diarmaid MacCulloch's Christianity goes back to the origins of the Hebrew Bible and encompasses the globe. It captures the major turning points in Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox history and fills in often neglected accounts of conversion and confrontation in Africa, Latin America, and Asia. MacCulloch introduces us to monks and crusaders, heretics and reformers, popes and abolitionists, and discover Christianity's essential role in shaping human history and the intimate lives of men and women. And he uncovers the roots of the faith that galvanized America, charting the surprising beliefs of the founding fathers, the rise of the Evangelical movement and of Pentecostalism, and the recent crises within the Catholic Church. Bursting with original insights and a great pleasure to read, this monumental religious history will not soon be surpassed.
The Story of the Christian Church
by Jesse Lyman Hurlbut
No institution has spanned more centuries and more continents than the Christian church. Its dramatic story is one of bloodshed and peace, corruption and purity. Here Dr. Hurlbut retells this story in an objective, concise, and clear style, emphasizing the spirit of the church, its growth and maturation, and the causes leading to historic events and their resulting influence. Accurate, up-to-date, and vividly presented, Hurlbut's Story of the Christian Church traces the six general periods of church history from A.D. 30 to the present day. A concluding section, covering the period since Dr. Hurlbut's death, has been added in this revised edition, thus giving the reader a complete, easily understood overview of the Christian church. Designed for two audiences, this book contains outlines and references in the margins to aid the student or teacher along with a continuous narrative and numerous illustrations for the general reader. It is ideal for Sunday school use, since it includes suggested outlines and review questions for each chapter at the end of the book.
The Story of Christianity, Vol. 2: The Reformation to the Present Day
by Justo L. Gonzalez
From Justo L. Gonzalez, author of the acclaimed three-volume History of Christian Thought, The Story of Christianity Volume II: The Reformation to the Present Day is the fully revised and updated second volume of The Story of Christianity. Gonzalez’s astute scholarship, lucid prose, and impassioned focus tell the narrative history of Christianity, beginning with the Protestant Reformation of the sixteenth century and leading all the way up to present day.
History Of The Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes In One)
by Philip Schaff
A monumental work tracing the development of Christianity from its inception to the modern era. Spanning eight volumes condensed into one comprehensive edition, Schaff meticulously examines the growth of Christian doctrine, the evolution of church institutions, and the profound impact of key figures and events on global religious history. Through detailed scholarship and engaging narrative, Schaff provides readers with a thorough understanding of Christianity's journey through the centuries, making this work an essential resource for scholars and enthusiasts alike.
by Will and Ariel Durant
A concise survey of the culture and civilization of mankind, The Lessons of History is the result of a lifetime of research from Pulitzer Prize–winning historians Will and Ariel Durant. With their accessible compendium of philosophy and social progress, the Durants take us on a journey through history, exploring the possibilities and limitations of humanity over time. Juxtaposing the great lives, ideas, and accomplishments with cycles of war and conquest, the Durants reveal the towering themes of history and give meaning to our own.
Philosophical and Theological Writings
by Franz Rosenzweig
A collection of Rosenzweig's key theological and philosophical essays, including first English translations exploring German idealism and Weimar theology. This volume brings together Rosenzweig's central essays on theology and philosophy, including two works available for the first time in English: the conclusion to Rosenzweig's book Hegel and the State, and Rosenzweig's famous letter to Rudolph Ehrenberg known as the Urzelle of the Star of Redemption, an essential work for understanding Rosenzweig, Weimar theology and philosophy, and German idealism and the existential reaction of the period. Additional selections are presented in new or revised translations. Introduction and notes by Franks and Morgan set Rosenzweig’s works in context and illuminate his role as one of the key thinkers of the period.
1 Tyler Roberts, Skeptics and Believers: Religious Debate in the Western Intellectual Tradition, (The Teaching Company, 2009), Lecture 4.
2 Roberts, Skeptics and Believers, Lecture 4.
3 Roberts, Skeptics and Believers, Lecture 4.
4 Roberts, Skeptics and Believers, Lecture 4.
5 Roberts, Skeptics and Believers, Lectures 4–5.
6 Andrew C. Fix, The Renaissance, Reformation and the Rise of Nations, (The Teaching Company, 2009), Lecture 47; Lawrence Cahoone, The Modern Intellectual Tradition: From Descartes to Derrida, (The Teaching Company, 2010), Lecture 5; see also A History of Christianity, Season 1, Episode 5, “Protestantism,” Diarmaid MacCulloch, BBC documentary, 2009.
7 Andrew C. Fix, The Renaissance, Reformation and the Rise of Nations, (The Teaching Company, 2009), Lecture 47; see also Tyler Roberts, Skeptics and Believers: Religious Debate in the Western Intellectual Tradition, (The Teaching Company, 2009), Lecture 6; and Molly Worthen, The History of Christianity II: From the Reformation to the Modern Megachurch, (The Teaching Company, 2017), Lecture 13.
8 Lawrence Cahoone, The Modern Intellectual Tradition: From Descartes to Derrida, (The Teaching Company, 2010), Lecture 6.
9 Roberts, Skeptics and Believers, Lecture 7.
10 Will Durant, The Story of Philosophy, (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1926; repr., New York: Dover Publications, 2022), 86–95.
11E Scholarly Community Encyclopedia, Voltaire, In a letter to Frederick II, King of Prussia, dated 5 January 1767, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/29687.
12 Phillip Cary, Religion and Philosophy in the West, (The Teaching Company), Lectures 17–19; See also Tyler Roberts, Skeptics and Believers: Religious Debate in the Western Intellectual Tradition, (The Teaching Company, 2009), Lectures 6–7; Molly Worthen, The History of Christianity II: From the Reformation to the Modern Megachurch, (The Teaching Company, 2017), Lectures 14–15; and Lawrence Cahoone, The Modern Intellectual Tradition: From Descartes to Derrida, (The Teaching Company, 2010), Lecture 7.
Portret van de Franse filosoof en wiskundige René Descartes (1596-1650) (Dutch), by Frans Franchoisz Hals, 1649, Louvre Museum, Saint-Germain-l’Auxerrois, France [PD-US]
Benedictus de Spinoza, by Franz Wulfhagen, 1664, [PD-US]
Portrait of John Locke (1632-1704), by Herman Verelst, National Portrait Gallery, London [PD-US]
Dernier voyage de Voltaire à Paris by Maurice Leloir, 1878 [CC 1.0]
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