Postmodernism

Postmodernism is an intellectual, cultural, and artistic movement that arose in the mid-twentieth century that questioned modernity’s assumptions and its grand, optimistic worldview.

Postmodern philosophy is continental philosophy’s misunderstood youngest offspring. Postmodern philosophy emerged in the mid-1960s when a few French philosophers questioned modernity’s worldview. They raised suspicionA philosophical concept articulated by Paul Ricoeur that some doubts drives the interpretation of consciousness as false. more on any narrative which presupposes that it offers an overarching explanation of how the world functions (meta-narrative), such as Aristotle’s geo-centric philosophy, medieval Christianity’s sacramentality, and the rationality of the Modern era. In the mid-1980’s, the original French postmodernist philosophy was commandeered by intellectuals advocating identity politics. These intellectuals appropriated aspects of the original postmodern theory while abandoning its main thesis of incongruity towards any meta-narrative. They created their own new worldview based on Marxist critical theory, which viewed the world as a struggle between the oppressed and the oppressors. This distorted form of postmodernismA much used and debated term with a wide range of meanings. From a theological perspecitive it generally refers to the view that modernity, which regards tradition as irrational. more took on a life of its own, which was embraced by academia.

Currently, professors, students and commentators from all of the humanities and political persuasions profusely cite the early French postmodernists out of context. We will sort out the distinctions between the original postmodern theory and the radical postmodernismA much used and debated term with a wide range of meanings. From a theological perspecitive it generally refers to the view that modernity, which regards tradition as irrational. more that people today generally associate with postmodernismA much used and debated term with a wide range of meanings. From a theological perspecitive it generally refers to the view that modernity, which regards tradition as irrational. more. In order to do this, it is necessary to have a basic understanding of pre-modern and modern meta-narratives.

Prehistoric cultures generally believed that their fate and nature were ultimately controlled by gods, and the human soul continued to exist in some manner after death. As civilizations evolved, many adopted a complex pantheon of gods such as the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians and VikingsThe seafaring people from Scandinavia who, during the late 8th to late 11th centuries A.D., colonized, raided, and traded throughout Europe. Medieval European Christians struggled to explain the arrival of the pagan Vikings, generally concluding that they were sent by... more. Hinduism and ZoroastrianismActed as a bridge between eastern and western thought. more arose in the Indus Valley, with each offering a nuanced view of existence. Hinduism was centered around the cycles of existence (life, death and rebirth) where one’s personal essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more progressed or devolved based on one’s actions during each succeeding life based on the lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more of karmaA core belief of most Eastern religions that eternal justice is realized through a process where one’s actions directly relate to one’s future station in the eternal cycle of death and rebirth. more. The ultimate goal was to escape the illusion of this material world through reunification with the eternal essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more and the disintegration of one’s ego. ZoroastrianismActed as a bridge between eastern and western thought. more is a monotheistic religion that introduced a dualistic cosmology of good and evil with a strong belief in individualism, free will, and personal accountability with beliefs of an afterlife consisting of a heaven and hell. Eastern cultures typically adopted a form of the Hindu perspective, while Western cultures generally followed Zoroastrianism’s worldview.

Greek culture introduced an increased value for individual excellence, regardless of class distinction. This is seen with the institution of the Olympics where slaves could compete with aristocrats, the increased value of artisans depicting stories on pottery, and the advent of democracy.

Greek philosophy emphasized fulfillment by living a balanced life of reason which was realized by adhering to five cardinalOriginally derived from a Latin word meaning a “hinge” but soon began to denote “superior” after the term was used to honor the deacons of the from the seven regions of Rome in the 6th century. The honored title spread... more virtues: wisdom, moderation/temperance, bravery, justice and piety. The ancient Greco-Roman cosmology generally consisted of a first principle (the One or the Good), which was the source of everything else, a divine mind which was associated with intelligence and a metaphysical world of forms, and a world soul. They adopted Aristotle’s geocentric system of nature. According to Aristotle’s philosophy, everything has a telos or purpose to which it is attracted based on its innate essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more. The universe consisted of a hierarchyComes from a Greek word that literally means “rule by priests,” and is used to identify churches with strong top down organization or episcopal polity such as the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches whereas as opposed to Baptist and... more based on the weight of four sublunar elements: earth, water, fire and air. Aristotle’s cosmosthe idea that the universe is one harmonious and orderly system. more was a harmonious, interlocking system involving the universe, physics, biology, ethics and the purpose of life. It was a beautiful orderly paradigm and circumscribed everything into one rational system.

Early Christians liked Aristotle’s system and adapted it to their belief in the TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more and that God imbued matter with a portion of his graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more. Thereby, God was intimately involved in the affairs of this mortal world. This perspective formed the basis for a strong belief in God’s providenceThe word derived from the Latin word for “provide” and “foresee” that identifies the Medieval doctrine of God’s active benevolent sovereignty over all things and events in his creation, despite any appearance to the contrary. The universal belief in God’s... more and sacramentality, which permeated Christendom throughout the Middle Ages. Medieval Europe was a top-down society with the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more and royalty exercising absolute control over society. Pre-modern European culture revolved around Augustine’s sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more paradigm. Humans are born in sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more and condemned to suffer in hell for eternity except those who receive God’s graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more through his sacraments of baptismFrom a Greek word meaning “to immerse;” and is an initiatory ritual washing whereby one becomes a member of the Christian community. It involves various symbolic meanings including, cleansing, the death and resurrection of Christ, and a sinners death and... more, the Eucharist more, and confessionthis word has several theological uses. 1) It refers to the act of confessing one’s sins, and particularly the confession of sins to a priest in the sacrament of Penance, that is often called “Confession;” 2) reciting a creed or... more, including the performance of penanceIs an old version of the word “repentance,” and refers to: 1) the Catholic sacrament also referred to as Confession where remorseful sinner (the “penitent”) confesses sins to a priest (the “confessor:”) who grants absolution; 2) the activities stipulated by... more. Everything had a religious connotation. Art was religious. Music was religious. Literature was religious, as epitomized by Dante’s Divine Comedy. Even the calendar was religious. All aspects of culture reinforced the meta-narrative of medieval Christianity.

The RenaissanceThe term derived from the Latin word meaning “reborn” that refers to the European cultural movement from the 14th to the 17th centuries that sought to advance learning through the recovery of classical texts and ideas and saw great advances... more introduced a period of great cultural and economic change emphasizing individualism, secularism, humanismWas a movement during the Renaissance to recover and teach the ancient Greek and Roman classics, language, literature, rhetoric, poetry, and history to instill virtue and good government and influenced a concurrent movement within Christianity to reform of the Church... more and a revival of classical learning. Art, architecture and literature pursued beauty and accuracy for their own sake.

The free enterprise system began with personal banking in Venice near the start of the RenaissanceThe term derived from the Latin word meaning “reborn” that refers to the European cultural movement from the 14th to the 17th centuries that sought to advance learning through the recovery of classical texts and ideas and saw great advances... more. As free enterprise replaced feudalism, a middle class of artisans, merchants and traders emerged leading to more urbanization and individual freedom. JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more Smith’s book, Wealth of Nations, articulated a new world order based on a capitalistic approach to life. This opened up new avenues for entrepreneurs to fund innovations to meet market demands.

The Protestant Reformation(A.D. 1517) The Protestant Reformation begins as Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses, largely in response to the widespread abuses caused by the aggressive commercialization of indulgences. more created a crisis of authority, setting the stage for the modern era with its turn to increased individual autonomyA term that literally means to give yourself the law. This idea was central to Kant’s moral theory that reason gives itself the moral law. more. Protestants questioned the authority of the traditions that formed the foundation of their medieval society. They questioned the authority of the clergyconsists of the priest, ministers and pastors of Christian churches. In the medieval church this term referred to both regular priest who were monks subject to a rule (regula) of a monastic order and secular priest who were not monks... more and the authority of royalty, which eventually led to questions regarding the existence and authority of God. Everything was put on the table and brought before the bar of personal reason to be judged.

Sir Francis BaconFrancis Bacon (A.D. 1561–1626) was an English philosopher and prominent statesman. He was later considered to have been the father of the scientific method. Francis Bacon also outlined a series of legal reforms which eventually became the foundation of the... more (1561–1626), argued for replacing the deductive worldview approach to study scientific truth with an inductive approach involving careful observation of experiments based on a skeptical methodology and reason. Philosopher René DescartesRene Descartes (1596–1650) introduced the scientific method based on the premise that all learning is derived from inductive reasoning based on observations. more, and other mathematicians, stressed the need for each step of a scientific experiment to produce a measurable result which could be expressed in mathematical terms. In 1632, GalileoGalileo Galilei (A.D. 1564–1642) was an Italian Renaissance-era scientist who strongly advocated for the Copernican heliocentric model of the universe. This led to his being tried by the Inquisition for heresy and he was forced to recant. He is most... more published his book Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World in which he showed that truth established by math and pure logic provided a more solid foundation on which to build one’s understanding of the universe than Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more dogma. GalileoGalileo Galilei (A.D. 1564–1642) was an Italian Renaissance-era scientist who strongly advocated for the Copernican heliocentric model of the universe. This led to his being tried by the Inquisition for heresy and he was forced to recant. He is most... more combined Descartes’s recommendation with Bacon’s inductive approach to articulate his five-step scientific method, leading to the scientific revolution.

Modernism was born with Descartes’ radical doubt and came of age during the EnlightenmentA broad term for 18th century European intellectual developments, including deism and other movements critical of orthodox Christianity, that are characteristically modern, emphasizing reason against tradition and authority. Refers to the period of intellectual and cultural development in Europe and... more when reason and science became the standard to determine truth. Roger BaconFrancis Bacon (A.D. 1561–1626) was an English philosopher and prominent statesman. He was later considered to have been the father of the scientific method. Francis Bacon also outlined a series of legal reforms which eventually became the foundation of the... more and others championed the theory that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience, creating a debate between rationalist and empiricists regarding the nature of truth and reality. Was it based on logic or one’s experience?

Sir Issac NewtonJohn Newton (A.D. 1725–1807) was an Anglican clergyman, author of the hymn Amazing Grace, and prominent supporter of abolition. He started his career as a sailor in the Royal Navy, and later worked in the slave trade. A process of religious... more showed that the natural world operated according to universal laws. Deism emerged and proclaimed that there was a natural religionRefers to a religion developed during the Enlightenment based on reason in contrast to revelation, i.e. “positive” religion such as Judaism and traditional Christianity. Its proponents believed that the true universal religion consisted of Judeo-Christian moral teachings stripped of non-rational... more inherent in all human beings. This innate religion was subject to the natural laws of the universe which were established by a watchmaker God who was not directly involved in world affairs. But the emotional emptiness of this proposition led to the pietist movement where individuals sought a deeper personal relationship with God.

AdamAccording to Jewish, Christian and Muslim scriptures, Adam was the first human being created by God out of the dust of the earth as the last step of creation. All humans descended from Adam and his wife, Eve, after they... more Smith’s book, The Wealth of Nations, articulated a new world order based on free enterprise. This capitalist system opened up new avenues for entrepreneurs to fund innovations created by science to meet market demands. LockeJohn Locke (1632–1704) applied the scientific method of using empirical observations to determine the strength of philosophical and theological ideas. more proposed using the strength of scientific evidence as the criteria to determine all truth. The strength of your belief was proportional to the strength of your evidence to back it up. David(c. 1000 B.C.) David is known for killing the giant Goliath when he was a young shepherd and later when he was king of Israel expanding the territory and glory of the kingdom. He wrote a number of the poetic... more HumeDavid Hume (1711–1776) used John Locke's standard to declare that it would take a miracle to believe a miracle. more had insisted that it would take a miracle to believe a miracle. ReasonThe capacity to logically and consciously establish facts and prioritize values. Reason is often considered to be a distinctly human capacity. Christianity considers it to be a unique gift to humanity, that through reason humanity is made in God’s likeness.... more and its offspring, science, became the arbiters of truth.

The wide spread acceptance of David(c. 1000 B.C.) David is known for killing the giant Goliath when he was a young shepherd and later when he was king of Israel expanding the territory and glory of the kingdom. He wrote a number of the poetic... more Hume’s religious skepticism motivated Kant(A.D. 1724–1804) German thinker generally recognized as the greatest philosopher of the modern period. He revolutionized modern epistemology with the argument that the mind is active in shaping our experience. He argued that we can think, but not know God... more to provide an erudite response. Later Hegel(1770–1831) was a very influential philosopher in his day and espoused a philosophy based on historical consciousness that reflected the optimist colonization attitude of his day. He believed that the Protestant modern industrial world was the apex of human and... more and SchleiermacherFriedrich Schleiermacher (A.D. 1768–1834) German theologian and philosopher, minister in the Reformed church, professor at the University of Berlin (A.D. 1811–1834), and founding figure of Protestant liberalism. He was the most influential Protestant thinker of the 19th century. In response... more each tried to meld reason with experience in their own ways. This approach, however, split the world between fundamental revivalists and the masters of suspicionA philosophical concept articulated by Paul Ricoeur that some doubts drives the interpretation of consciousness as false. more. Religion versus science became the dichotomy. ScienceThe effort of building and organizing knowledge about the world through empirically testable explanations and predictions. This may create points of conflict with religious theories which incorporate supernatural (non-empirical) explanations of the world. more claimed exclusive rights to reason and thereby killed God. With the death of God, the world was cut loose from its Judeo-Christian moorings to drift aimlessly through the chaos of a nihilistic world where there were no absolutes: no absolute truths, no absolute morals, no absolute standards. Everything became relative.

This intellectual movement, spurred on by revolutionary scientific discoveries and increased personal freedom, ushered in a new optimistic age where people looked to science and human reason to create a bright future. ModernityA period of history tied to the Age of Reason or the Enlightenment. Modernity is characterized by such factors as questioning or rejecting tradition; prioritizing individualism, freedom and equality; and belief in inevitable progress. These trends of modernity often pit... more replaced the medieval religious worldview with a rational worldview inseparably linked to science. This Modern meta-narrative assumed that truth was absolute, universal and independent of the human mind, similar to Plato’s metaphysical world of forms. The debate about how one was able to obtain objective knowledge of truth continued with reason (logic) and experience competing for first position. Regardless, it was understood that humans could improve their lives by acting rationally in response to the increased amount of truth being discovered. These assumptions led to the Modern worldview that humanity progressed through the discovery of truth and the rational application of this increased knowledge.

This perspective created an optimistic attitude that there were no limits to human achievement. ScienceThe effort of building and organizing knowledge about the world through empirically testable explanations and predictions. This may create points of conflict with religious theories which incorporate supernatural (non-empirical) explanations of the world. more and engineers created new products and the free enterprise system provided the capital to produce and bring them to consumers. Western society saw major advancements in all aspects of temporalIs a technical term used in theology referring to this mortal physical existence in time as opposed to eternal divine existence outside of time. more life: technology, transportation, health, entertainment, individual freedoms and political expression. But, simultaneously, with the rise of this new optimistic consumerism, an epidemic of loneliness and despair emerged. Temporal luxuries did not satisfy the human need for meaning.

There were cracks all along the Modern journey. Miners and factory workers were forgotten and abused segments of society during the industrial revolution. Race disenfranchised others. Pollution damaged personal health and the environment. The sinking of the Titanic sent a shockwave through society: Man was not invincible. The horror and senseless slaughter of World War I(A.D. 1914) World War 1 begins, a four year conflict pitting the British Empire, France, the Russian Empire, and the United States against the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire. The British Empire and her allies were victorious, maintaining... more disillusioned a generation. World War II(A.D. 1939) World War II begins, a 6 year conflict pitting the British Empire, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States against Nazi Germany, the Italian Empire, and the Japanese Empire. The United States and the Soviet Union emerge... more, the Holocaust(A.D. 1941–1945) Germany in World War II engaged in a policy of systematized murder of approximately 6 million Jews (about 2/3 of the European Jewish population). German policy of systematized murder also included Slavs, Roma, “incurably sick”, political and religious... more and the nuclear Cold War(A.D. 1947) The Cold War begins after Soviet and American relations deteriorate and the Americans announce a policy of containing the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union and the United States jockey for the role of sole super power previously enjoyed... more caused some French intellectuals to question Modernism’s basic assumptions. ModernityA period of history tied to the Age of Reason or the Enlightenment. Modernity is characterized by such factors as questioning or rejecting tradition; prioritizing individualism, freedom and equality; and belief in inevitable progress. These trends of modernity often pit... more had failed to deliver on its promise to produce the ideal society, free from suffering and injustice. These French intellectuals began to articulate a new way of looking at the world referred to as postmodernismA much used and debated term with a wide range of meanings. From a theological perspecitive it generally refers to the view that modernity, which regards tradition as irrational. more.

The postmodernismA much used and debated term with a wide range of meanings. From a theological perspecitive it generally refers to the view that modernity, which regards tradition as irrational. more began to take root much earlier with Modernism’s radical doubt. These roots expanded with Kant’s realization that the human mind synthesizes its sense impressions and with Hegel’s notion of a societal consciousness. These roots took hold with Marx’s hermeneutics of suspicionIs a term coined by the philosopher Paul Ricoeur to identify a method of interpreting cultural phenomena by seeking to uncover hidden or suppressed sources for the belief or activity being examined. Marx, Nietzsche, and Freud based much of their... more which interpreted societal beliefs with skepticism in order to expose their repressed or hidden meanings. When you then look at these societal norms through the lens of Nietzsche’s will to power, postmodernismA much used and debated term with a wide range of meanings. From a theological perspecitive it generally refers to the view that modernity, which regards tradition as irrational. more emerged to question the foundation of every institution and the veracity of historical “truths.” As one scholar observed, “Modern traditions treat the authority of traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more as irrational, and then postmodernismA much used and debated term with a wide range of meanings. From a theological perspecitive it generally refers to the view that modernity, which regards tradition as irrational. more points out that modernity itself is a traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more.” However, postmodernists often fail to realize that postmodernismA much used and debated term with a wide range of meanings. From a theological perspecitive it generally refers to the view that modernity, which regards tradition as irrational. more is a legacy of the modernity they reject and cannot be divorced from it. Despite its claim of originality, postmodernist logic is often based on the modern traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more of skepticism and on philosophical concepts developed during the EnlightenmentA broad term for 18th century European intellectual developments, including deism and other movements critical of orthodox Christianity, that are characteristically modern, emphasizing reason against tradition and authority. Refers to the period of intellectual and cultural development in Europe and... more period, particularly Kantianism. It is also influenced by Hegelianism, the hermeneuticsThe study of methods of interpretation. more utilized by Marx, and Heidegger’s phenomenology discussed in previous chapters.

Postmodernism is not just a philosophical theory. It is based on observable cultural changes brought on by Modernity’s perspectives and values. Culture informs society of its worldview of reality. This worldview is influenced by art, everyday human interactions as well as intellectual communications. It is how one finds meaning in life and answers its big questions: Who am I? What is life all about? What is true? Where do I find loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more? What is loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more? What happens when I die? Etcetera.

The Modern world introduced a new dynamic in how one sees the world: media. Photographs displayed accurate images of people, places and things. War became real to people far from its fronts. Motion pictures introduced a new form of entertainment. The radio connected diverse communities and vast regions together. Magazines and newspapers informed people about current events and fashion. The television brought live news events from around the world into people’s homes. The internet, cellular phones and social media introduced new ways to communicate, stay informed and connect with others. The entertainment industry capitalized on all of these media sources to create altered images of reality for dramatic effect.

The early postmodernist thinker Jean Baudrillard (1929-2007) referred to these images as simulations. Over time, these simulations become ingrained into our culture. Movies and books like Star Wars and Harry Potter have become part of everyday life and influence the evolution of society’s culture. This process continues as these simulations take on a life of their own and become the source for further simulations. Jokes, advertisements, everyday dialog and even intellectual conversations reference these simulations, adding layer upon layer of simulations removing one further and further from the reality of the natural world. This media explosion creates an overload of contradicting images of reality making it difficult for individuals to decern what is “fake news” and what is real. No longer is there one grand overarching cultural narrative reinforcing established societal views and values.

To a great extent, we each create our own reality based on which images and messages we choose to watch and hear. It is as if we each are living in our own version of the animated movie Bolt. In this movie, a small dog is the hero of a TV series, which he thinks is real. Consequently, people are living in a multitude of diverse realities of their own creation. Humans are social creatures, so various sub-cultures have emerged as individual gravitate to groups of likeminded individuals who reinforce each other’s worldview. This creates the scenario where people unknowingly choose to plug into an alternative reality, like in the movie Matrix. Notice how these references (simulation) to fictional movies help communicate a message about reality. On a macro level, there is a great divide between a rural perspective and the urban worldview. Often a rural conservative believes his views are more grounded in reality than a detached urbanite. But all groups fall victim to group think and confirmationis a term derived from the Latin word for “strengthening,” and is one of the seven sacraments of Roman Catholic Church and of the Eastern Orthodox Church. In Catholicism and Orthodoxy this sacrament involves anointing with oil and the laying... more bias, which distorts actual reality to some extent.

This cultural, artistic dynamic led one commentator to observe, “Postmodernism refers to the state of culture where media is produced in such staggering quantities that it has erased the boundaries of reality itself and hyper-reality prevails.”1

In his seminal work The Postmodern Condition, Jean-François Lyotard (1924-1998) defined postmodernismA much used and debated term with a wide range of meanings. From a theological perspecitive it generally refers to the view that modernity, which regards tradition as irrational. more “as incredulity toward meta-narratives” because they are unverifiable and easily subject to manipulation by powerful institutional forces.2 Generally, non-philosophers mistakenly think meta-narratives refers to language or metaphysical concepts. It actually refers to any worldview which presupposes that it offers the foundation on which all things, including the concept of truth and wisdom, rests, such as Aristotle’s harmonious geocentric system, Christendom’s sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more paradigm, and Modernity’s rationality.

Lyotard brought the term postmodern to the forefront of philosophical debate. Postmodernists generally question the objectivity and accuracy of modernity’s depiction of the world and typically believe that the foundations of entrenched perspectives are corrupted by existing systems of power. It rejects the notion that any particular historical narrative provides an adequate foundation to understand humanity’s vast cultural experiences.

Lyotard postulated that the developed world had moved past the modern age because we are using a different system to obtain and value knowledge. He argued that with the advent of the computer age, society’s priority moved from training minds to optimizing performance through the use of machines, such as the computer. The rational Modern meta-narrative to legitimize knowledge had been replaced by an emphasis on technological advances controlling access to knowledge. The scientific method to discover and verify knowledge based on logic no longer ruled supreme. “The game is not truth, but efficiency.”3 A few gatekeepers controlled access to this information. This compartmentalization of knowledge led to the dissolution of Modernity’s epistemic system. The disintegration of the narrative (the big story) approach for people to understand reality resulted in the loss of meaning in postmodernity. People now create their own language games to understand truth which celebrates the ever-changing relationships among diverse people.4

At the time of his premature death, Michel Foucault (1929-1984) was the most prominent intellectual in France. He researched and traced the formation and function of ideas through history. His work analyzed the historical interrelationships between sociology, psychology, and philosophy. He produced several significant works, but his most influential hypothesis is an understanding of power outlined in three pages of the first volume of his History of Sexuality. Its original title was Will to Knowledge, which was a take-off from Nietzsche’s Will to Power. This original title was appropriate due to the central role power played in his treatise.

Foucault claimed that traditional political theories have not kept up with societal changes and are stuck in an outdated monarchical, top-down perspective. They imagine power as something an individual can possess and organized like a pyramid with one personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more on top controlling others through sanctions against prohibited activity. He observed that power does not function that way, and we need “to cut off the head of the king” in order to see clearly how power actually functions in society. He claimed that power in not essentially repressive but productive. It does not primarily operate by prohibiting action but it produces the way we experience life.

We should not try to look for the center or power but focus on how it is spread throughout society through diverse intersecting social networks. Primarily, power is not something a personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more has but rather what people do. It is relational. Power is ubiquitous with all social networks, so we all are both subject to the exercise of power and the wielders of power, and wherever there is power there is resistance. Society functions in a complex dance to music that these unstable networks make on their own. Societal power has its own rationality, objectives and means which largely operate irrespective of the structures imposed by government and institutions.5

Foucault’s student, Jacques Derrida (1930-2004), became one of Foucault’s most influential antagonists. Derrida was one of the few philosophers to reach star status. His influence spread far beyond philosophy covering literary criticism, art, architectural theory, political theory, and Western culture itself. This vast influence primarily grew out of his theory of deconstruction, which upended philosophical assumptions back to Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more.

Even though his term deconstruction largely defies definition, it basically is an analysis of texts to expose and challenge hidden binary contrasts which undergird our Western hierarchical way of thinking. Recall DescartesRene Descartes (1596–1650) introduced the scientific method based on the premise that all learning is derived from inductive reasoning based on observations. more epiphany when he realized everything that he learned at the university was built on a sandy foundation and would not stand the test of time. He recognized the need to tear down the whole structure in order to build a new one with a solid foundation. For Derrida, the sand in this metaphor was metaphysics, which went back to Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more. At its heart, Derrida’s philosophy is a critique of Plato’s dualism, substance and forms. He argued that metaphysics creates dualistic oppositions which installs hierarchyComes from a Greek word that literally means “rule by priests,” and is used to identify churches with strong top down organization or episcopal polity such as the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches whereas as opposed to Baptist and... more and privilege.

His deconstructive strategy involved two steps of identifying hierarchies and reversing them. The first step involves a detailed analysis of texts to identify words that point to an alternative or opposite meaning, such as essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more and appearance. n PlatonismThe philosophy of Plato and other systems derived therefrom. Platonism generally asserted the existence of abstract objects, or “forms”, which were thought to exist in a realm other than the physical world of external physical objects or the internal world... more, essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more is more important than appearance. Derrida reverses it. He points out that knowledge of essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more depends on our experience with something that appears. He shows that essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more can be reduced down to immanence where essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more is found in various appearances involving memory and anticipation. Thus, the “inferior” term (appearance) must be re-inscribed as the original superior resource from which essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more was derived. He continues that appearance has its own ambiguities based on slight overlaps between memories, presence and anticipation. Thus, our present observation is contaminated by the past and future, creating doubt, or what Derrida refers to as something that is undecidable, thereby destabilizing the original dualistic decision which instituted a hierarchyComes from a Greek word that literally means “rule by priests,” and is used to identify churches with strong top down organization or episcopal polity such as the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches whereas as opposed to Baptist and... more.6 Derrida’s promoted his deconstruction strategy to provoke us to consider that which is wholly other in order to open our minds to alternative possibilities.

Derrida applied his deconstruction approach to various disciplines, including ethics, justice and political theory. He advocated an approach to ethics based on his Jewish traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more of responsibility to the other, instead of behavior that is rationally justified on general principles. He stressed the absolute personal responsibility to care for others. He addressed the paradox of the correctness of unconditional openness and hospitality where everyone should welcome anyone into their home and the practical dangers involved with this ethical approach to life.7

These postmodern thinkers did not create postmodernismA much used and debated term with a wide range of meanings. From a theological perspecitive it generally refers to the view that modernity, which regards tradition as irrational. more, but commented on the cultural shift occurring around them. The populus was becoming disillusioned with the optimistic promises of ModernityA period of history tied to the Age of Reason or the Enlightenment. Modernity is characterized by such factors as questioning or rejecting tradition; prioritizing individualism, freedom and equality; and belief in inevitable progress. These trends of modernity often pit... more. Something was not working. Confidence in the institutions of authority waned while shared values disintegrated. These original postmodern philosophers shined a light on various deficiencies of the optimistic Modern worldview. Their criticism was directed more to the intellectual underpinnings of the Modern meta-narrative than to existing social conditions. They challenged modernity’s reliance on reason and personal experience as the exclusive means to understanding reality. These visionaries gave a voice to the sentiments which large segments of society were feeling.8

As demonstrated by the RenaissanceThe term derived from the Latin word meaning “reborn” that refers to the European cultural movement from the 14th to the 17th centuries that sought to advance learning through the recovery of classical texts and ideas and saw great advances... more, art leads the charge during shifts in societal attitudes and values. The intimate tie between art and emotion provides an accurate means to take the pulse of a society. It is easy to see a world falling apart in Modern and Postmodern art. Near the end of the nineteenth century, artists began to challenge the notion that art should serve as a pure, accurate and transcendent expression of reality. Visual art began to break the rules and challenge the accepted norms. This trend of experimentation continued well into the twentieth century when a new twist arose. Some artists reveled in their attack on high art and traditional values by using everyday objects, appropriation with distortion, irony, and images of pop culture. Pastiche (paste multiple elements together) and collage with unique features became popular. These features were often used with new and mixed media to emphasize a message about social issues.

This same trend was seen in architecture. The traditional Modern style around the turn of the century gave way to simplification and an emphasis in utility. But by the twenty-first century some architecture celebrated the abnormal, complexity, and ornamentation.

Literature was no different. Some writers rejected standard conventions and adopted stylistic methods to overtly challenge accepted practices. They often used paradox, fragmentation, convoluted plots, parody and dark humor to highlight the illogic of a cultural issue being addressed.

Postmodernism’s complex, multifaceted expression through the arts was echoed in the way many people looked at the world. Tradition was not just questioned: it was subject to suspicionA philosophical concept articulated by Paul Ricoeur that some doubts drives the interpretation of consciousness as false. more and open hostility. Even the assumption that the scientific method was the best framework to understand reality was questioned due to the potential biases of its researchers and human fallibility. They rejected the idea of universal objective truth discovered through science and reason in favor of subjective lived experience. The concept that all historical roles were mere social constructs took hold and diversity was celebrated. Roles and categories had changed over time, so they were fluid. Individuals no longer needed to comply with archaic structures. People were now free to seek happiness however they wanted. Total free expression became a basic human right and tolerance became the ultimate good.

Postmodernism’s challenge to modernity’s reliance on reason and antagonism towards traditional beliefs and institutions aligned postmodernismA much used and debated term with a wide range of meanings. From a theological perspecitive it generally refers to the view that modernity, which regards tradition as irrational. more with the hermeneutics of suspicionIs a term coined by the philosopher Paul Ricoeur to identify a method of interpreting cultural phenomena by seeking to uncover hidden or suppressed sources for the belief or activity being examined. Marx, Nietzsche, and Freud based much of their... more, critical theory, multiculturalism, and to a great extent with post-structural literary theory which maintains that language is incapable of directly connecting individuals with reality.

The original French postmodern philosophers were Marxist or on the political left, so it was natural that far left intellectuals in America would adopt postmodern philosophy to support their political aims. Many of them espoused the Frankford School’s Marxist critical theory that our social and economic life consists of a battle between the oppressed and the oppressor. These intellectuals ignored postmodernism’s unifying principle of incredulity toward meta-narratives and created their own new grand narrative to conform with their political views aligned with identity politics. They then weaponized postmodern philosophy to undermine the existing order by proclaiming the need to deconstruct knowledge and institutions to discover all the hidden baked-in dynamics that sustain the oppressive world. Postmodernism’s original vision of toleration of a plurality of views was turned on its head to become a tool of a divisive, suspicious worldview intent on dismantling the white-patriarchy power-structure to create a new egalitarian utopia.

Some of the intellectuals leading this charge were: Bell Hooks, who wrote extensively about race, feminism, capitalism and gender; Judith Butler, who proposed the theory of gender performativity (individuals choose to perform a role); Kimberle Crenshaw, who introduced and developed the theory of intersectionality (the interrelationship between oppressed groups); and Robin DiAngelo, who wrote about white defensiveness and claimed that children develop attitudes of white supremacy as young as three years of age.

This new “postmodern” meta-narrative proclaiming social relations are based on social constructs, which have historically been controlled by a white patriarchy to subvert the rest of society, has taken hold and dominates academia today. Identity politics has removed individuality out of individualism. Critical theory has made great inroads into western culture leading to institutionalized DEI (diversity, equity, and inclusion) policies being imposed to benefit marginalized segments of society. This has created a strong, opposing, political reaction. The clash between the traditional Modern ideals and this new postmodern worldview is shaping up to be the primary conflict of our age.

The original postmodern philosophers generally questioned the viability of establishing objective truth and morals in favor of plurality in all aspects of existence. This led critics of continental philosophy to falsely accuse them of not believing in objective facts, instead of their skepticism of one’s ability to accurately determine facts. They referred to these philosophers pejoratively as postmodernists and claimed that they were epistemological and moral nihilist who believed that everything was relative. However, that criticism was misplaced. The original French postmodern philosophers simply tried to point out ways people were deceiving themselves due to this overload of simulated images and entrenched cultural prejudices.9 Lyotard stated that philosophers do not claim to know things but simply ask questions. He stated that he “makes no claim to [his hypothesis] being original or even true,” and that it “should not be accorded predictive value in relation to reality.”10

These postmodernists were more like commentators than evangelists for a new meta-narrative. They were not trying to turn the world upside down, but were encouraging people to be more open minded and to see aspects of the world that they had been blind to due to the simplicityRefers to the philosophical concept applicable to the source of all creation that also has no parts. for example, Aristotle’s “great mover unmoved” or the traditional Christian God, To help understand the concept, think of a point in geometry. It... more of the lens of Modernity’s worldview. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy’s observation regarding Lyotard applies to all of these early French postmodern philosophers:

“Lyotard offers not an ‘anything goes’ relativism, but rather takes up the historical fact that after the Shoah [Holocaust], there is no longer a belief in the progress of history, à la G. W. F. Hegel(1770–1831) was a very influential philosopher in his day and espoused a philosophy based on historical consciousness that reflected the optimist colonization attitude of his day. He believed that the Protestant modern industrial world was the apex of human and... more (and even more so today, when polls all over the West show that many believe the next generation will be worse off than the last) while there is also what Hannah Arendt (1906–1975) called a general ‘loss of authority’ in traditional institutions. Hence both progressive and conservative political views are found flailing in diagnosing the problems of the political, especially when facing the devaluation of all values in consumer culture.”

However, these criticisms largely apply to the political “postmodern” movement, which has adopted critical theory’s meta-narrative that societal ills are the result of the power struggle between the oppressed and the oppressors, and that the solution is to dismantle the white patriarchy in order to create a new egalitarian utopia. This is the type of simplistic view against which the original postmodern thinkers warned us. Individuals should be able to see the flaws of the modern, secularOf the world in contrast to the divine. more, consumer-driven worldview without swallowing the ideology of a new meta-narrative which proponents evangelize with religious fervor. This aspect of “postmodern” thought is criticized for its overlap with structuralism and its reliance on linguistic models to understand reality while ignoring the natural world. Sociologist Daniel(c. 615–515 B.C.) An Old Testament prophet known for surviving being thrown into a den of lions and for interpreting dreams. His prophetic writings regarding the end of time have captivated the attention of many Christian writers. more Bell maintains that radical elements have dominated mass media and used it to proclaim their cultural superiority, while they tear down boundaries without replacing them with any stable form linked to social and political values or first principles.11

Humans inherently construct the lens through which they view the world in order to create some semblance of order and meaning, i.e. a meta-narrative. When a culture does not provide such a lens based on collective values and first principles, the meta-narrative that individuals create are more likely to be fundamentally flawed leading to greater discord and disintegration of civil society. Society does not need to throw rationality out simply because modernity did not fulfill its implicit promise to provide individuals with a sense of meaning and purpose in life.

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