Pluralism in a Postmodern World
Global Trends and Major Worldviews
National politics and geo-political conflicts dominate public discourse, but politics follows culture. The whitecaps we see on the turbulent sea of discord are insignificant in comparison to the currents underneath that drive the course of history. We have reviewed the main religious and philosophical ideas that have led the human race to this point in time. Even though each traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more has a greater breadth and depth of both nuanced theology and philosophy, we discovered the following is a very general summary of the worldviews of the major world religions and belief systems:
- Eastern religions are centered on the cycles of existence.
- IslamIs one of the three Abrahamic religions (Christianity and Judaism the other two) that stresses the importance of the only one true God and man’s forgetfulness as source of sin. The religion was founded by Muhammad in the early 7th... more stresses the importance of God and human forgetfulness.
- Judaism is founded on God’s covenant relationship with his people.
- Eastern Orthodox ChristianitySee orthodox. more focuses on its members’ union with God.
- Western Christianity is captivated by the issues of sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more and redemption, with the Roman Catholic traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more placing weight on obtaining graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more through its sacraments, including works of penanceIs an old version of the word “repentance,” and refers to: 1) the Catholic sacrament also referred to as Confession where remorseful sinner (the “penitent”) confesses sins to a priest (the “confessor:”) who grants absolution; 2) the activities stipulated by... more, while Protestants rely on free graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more.
- Mormonism emphasizes human growth and development to become like God.
- Modern secularOf the world in contrast to the divine. more belief is based on an evolutionary, existential view, with reliance on science as the arbiter of truth.
- Postmodernism is skeptical of any meta-narrative that professes to explain humanity’s role in the world.
Each of these worldviews has some efficacy or else they would not have stood the test of time and resonated with millions of people. Technology has eliminated many borders and thrust diverse cultures together in an ever-shrinking world. How can society co-exist in peace amongst such different and powerful perspectives? After Vatican II(A.D. 1962–1965) The ecumenical council of Roman Catholic bishops presided over by Pope John XXIII and Pope Paul VI that was held between 1962–1965, which updated many aspects of the Church to be more combatable with the modern world and... more, there was a strong, optimistic ecumenicalcomes from a Greek word for “worldwide,” and refers to both ancient church councils representing the whole church as well to discussions during the past century between Roman Catholics, Protestants and Orthodox churches regarding unification of the various branches of... more movement that extended well into the twenty-first century, but it sputtered and has now nearly evaporated. Polarization has infected nearly every aspect of human interaction, leading many to lose faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more in a future of peaceful co-existence. Is humanity doomed to self-destruction? Is all lost?
Tension is a Natural State
From a Christian perspective, God created division when he formed the universe. He “divided the light from the darkness,” separated the land from the sea, and differentiated the sex of the species, male and female.1 Tension is the natural state of temporal existence. The destructive power of the clash of different forces grabs our attention: lightening, floods, and war. But conflict does not necessarily mean contention. It can be a creative force. Contrasts create beauty and enhance the quality of life. The same place where the sea breached its borders in a storm is the beach where couples hold hands watching the sunset. The union of opposites gives birth to harmony and new life. Indeed, all movement is the product of tension, and substantive progress usually is not possible without some degree of conflict. Even the basis of our justice system is adversarial.
Most astrophysicists believe that all matter in the universe was created when practically infinite energy—sounds a lot like God’s power—converted into matter with a big bang. A very small portion of the matter that was created continued to exist instead of collapsing in on itself because about one out of a billion particles of matter were created without a corresponding antimatter particle. All the rest of the matter and antimatter merged to form dark energy, which influences how the universe expands. This disparity, or “imperfection,” between the number of matter and antimatter particles enabled the creation of the universe. The lack of uniformity—another “imperfection”—in some hydrogen atoms enabled the force of gravity to attract other atoms, thus creating a dynamic cosmosthe idea that the universe is one harmonious and orderly system. more where stars were created as the weight of trillions of hydrogen atoms crashing into each other created nuclear fusion, which produced new, heavier elements until the star exploded when iron was eventually created. These violent explosions then produced precious metals like gold and platinum. The dynamic universe continued to develop as stardust coalesced to form planets, moons, and asteroids. The earth even obtained its life-sustaining water through a great collision with an asteroid.2
Just as imperfections and crushing conflict were essential to create our beautiful world, interaction with other imperfect humans is essential for our personal development. Realization of this truth has been strained as the world moves into the postmodern era which has largely adopted relativism as its norm.
Christian Spiritualism
We can trace modern spiritualism’s roots back to Eastern religions and the mystic traditions of early and medieval Christianity. ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more reformers attacked mysticismIs a form of religious experience that is found in one form or another in nearly all religious traditions. In early Christianity, Pseudo Dionysius referred to it as “mystical theology” because it referred to aspects of an incomprehensible God that... more along with the papacyThe office of pope in the Roman Catholic Church which is the highest office in its hierarchical structure. more, monasticism, and the entire sacramental system of the Roman Catholic Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more. ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more reformers rejected the one-tiered mystical form of discipleship which was found only in the monasteries and sought to establish a simpler more universal form of discipleship that was found in the New Testament. However, mystic principles still informed much of their work.
Martin Luther’s interpretation of Jacob’s ladder found in the twenty-eighth chapter of Genesis drew on the mystic distinctions between our holiness and God’s holiness. John Calvin’s book Institutes of the Christian Religion, which laid out the foundation of ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more theology, likewise stressed the mystic traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more of self-denial and prayer but eliminated the confining structure of monastic life that the Catholic traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more imposed. CalvinJohn Calvin (A.D. 1509-1564) French Protestant theologian who lived most of his adult life in Geneva. He was the most influential figure in Reformed theology and author of the Institutes, the most important systematic theology text of Protestantism. more stressed the need for a personal mystical born-again experience to be saved. The Anabaptist (radical arm of the early ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more movement that insisted on baptism of adults by immersion, from which the AmishA branch of Anabaptist that broke off from the Mennonites in the 16th Century. (See Anabaptists.) more and Mennonite traditions evolved) and Moravian movements stressed spirituality involving a strong mystical presence of the Holy Spirit in their meetings. They were persecuted by both the Catholic Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more and the other ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more denominations. Consequently, they pursued the mystic path of embracing martyrdom as a means of imitating Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more and realizing a deeper union with him. Today, this Christian mystic heritage has reasserted itself in ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more spiritualism found in the evangelicalComes from the Greek term, evangelion, and means good news or the Gospel. This term was use in the 16th century to refer to Protestants and is still used this way in Germany to this day. In England and the... more movement.
Challenges with Relativism
Descartes’s proclamation “I think, therefore I am” was the beginning and is the epitome of the modern age. Each personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more became the center of their own universe. Kant(A.D. 1724–1804) German thinker generally recognized as the greatest philosopher of the modern period. He revolutionized modern epistemology with the argument that the mind is active in shaping our experience. He argued that we can think, but not know God... more further elucidated that the human mind is not just a blank page; it systemizes and categorizes sensory impressions to form understanding, resulting in individuals potentially perceiving things differently. Hegel(1770–1831) was a very influential philosopher in his day and espoused a philosophy based on historical consciousness that reflected the optimist colonization attitude of his day. He believed that the Protestant modern industrial world was the apex of human and... more pointed out that traditions affect a society’s communal consciousness, how individuals within that community see the world, and how this communal worldview changes over time. The masters of suspicionA philosophical concept articulated by Paul Ricoeur that some doubts drives the interpretation of consciousness as false. more explained how a deluded worldview deceives individuals. NietzscheFriedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), declared that God is dead, and the intellectuals of his day had killed him. With the death of God, nihilism was born. more pointed out that with the death of God, society is now left with no standards. There is no common horizon, so everyone’s view of reality is based on each person’s position, or point of view.
Today, many people declare that they have been awakened to how racism and other domineering influences have corrupted social behavior. These woke individuals demand change that is resisted by those who hold onto their traditional views, creating tension in society. How we deal with these conflicting worldviews is an issue we are wrestling with today. This is especially difficult when some truth seems to rest on both sides of the debate. How do we resolve conflicts regarding fundamental differences in our postmodern world if there are no standards? We are social creatures who interact with others, so we need some guidelines to maintain order. But who determines those norms?
Is it each individual deciding what is best for themselves? This is the subconscious foundation of many persons’ worldview. They feel that each individual should be free to choose whatever it is that makes them happy, and any constraints imposed by society or others is an infringement on this fundamental human right. This is not the amoral libertine movement of the sixty’s counterculture, but a new counter-morality that challenges the ethical foundation of Western culture. This new egocentric morality places the triad of personal choice, compassion and tolerance as the ultimate virtue and dispenses with the Christian God and the Greek’s The Good as the arbiters of morality. This is demonstrated by the LGBTQ community’s direct moral challenge to the Judeo-Christian sexual ethic. Those who do not embrace the LGBTQ agenda are demonized as immoral. What’s interesting is this is done by co-opting the Christian ethical concepts of tolerance and compassion.
However, ethical concepts uprooted from their metaphysical grounding are not sustainable. This triad cannot be the ultimate virtue because it consumes itself. We see tolerance in the name of kindness and plurality turn into intolerance when one group does not support another’s choice. Similarly, strong secularism claims that it supports freedom of religion but that public discourse should not be contaminated with religious language to avoid offending others. Individuals are free to practice religion in their private lives, but they need to leave it behind when they engage in public debate. But a freedom that is irrelevant to the state is meaningless. Silencing dialogue to control the narrative never leads to harmony.3
This individualistic approach leads to chaos and violence because it is an impossible task. One person’s demand for compliance with their choice invariably infringes on another person’s choice. Hobbes pointed out that if everyone is free to exercise their self-interest without restraint, it invariably leads to a state of perpetual war.4
Social Contract Theory and Majority Rule
Socrates(470–399 B.C.). Socrates is credited with being the father of philosophy because he taught that the individual must begin by first examining himself. He challenged many assumptions and insisted on defining terms at the beginning of a debate in order... more introduced the concept that a just, civil society is based on an implied social contract. He believed so strongly in this view that he refused to escape his death sentence when given the opportunity. Socrate argued that he could not remain a just man without accepting the city’s judgment. Socrates(470–399 B.C.). Socrates is credited with being the father of philosophy because he taught that the individual must begin by first examining himself. He challenged many assumptions and insisted on defining terms at the beginning of a debate in order... more told his students, who were urging him to flee, that he needed to accept his fate because he implicitly agreed to honor the laws of Athens and this fatal outcome when he chose to live in the city and receive the benefits it offered.
This concept of a social contract inspired Hobbes, Locke, RousseauJean-Jacque Rousseau (A.D. 1712–1778) was a philosopher born in Geneva, Switzerland. He authored The Social Contract which became a cornerstone of modern political theory, and famous for dramatic lines, such as: “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in... more and others to articulate the modern social contract theory. This became the moral and intellectual foundation for democratic political reform during the EnlightenmentA broad term for 18th century European intellectual developments, including deism and other movements critical of orthodox Christianity, that are characteristically modern, emphasizing reason against tradition and authority. Refers to the period of intellectual and cultural development in Europe and... more. LockeJohn Locke (1632–1704) applied the scientific method of using empirical observations to determine the strength of philosophical and theological ideas. more argued that individuals give their innate right to unbridled self-interest and to protect themselves over to the political society that free individuals voluntarily form and agree to submit to the will of the whole. In exchange, these individuals receive laws chosen by the general will of the body politic, judges to adjudicate compliance, and executive power to enforce compliance, i.e. security. However, if the time comes when this protection is no longer provided by the state, this compact has been broken so the people have a right to dissolve the government and create a new political structure.
Does the majority then have the right to set the standard for acceptable social behavior? We venerate democracy and often view it as the ultimate test of morality. But is it? German judges and officials were found guilty of crimes against humanity for enforcing the laws of the legitimately democratically elected Nazi regime.
A majority view does not guarantee good or correct outcomes. Socrates(470–399 B.C.). Socrates is credited with being the father of philosophy because he taught that the individual must begin by first examining himself. He challenged many assumptions and insisted on defining terms at the beginning of a debate in order... more and Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more felt that a democracy was a bad form of government because it promotes mediocre leaders and the majority eventually would deplete the wealth of the productive minority. Even though Socrates(470–399 B.C.). Socrates is credited with being the father of philosophy because he taught that the individual must begin by first examining himself. He challenged many assumptions and insisted on defining terms at the beginning of a debate in order... more felt morally compelled to accept Athens’s judgment, he rejected the idea that a social contract was the original source of justice. Justice was more than a social contract of obeying laws in exchange for others obeying them as well.
Jean-Jacques RousseauJean-Jacque Rousseau (A.D. 1712–1778) was a philosopher born in Geneva, Switzerland. He authored The Social Contract which became a cornerstone of modern political theory, and famous for dramatic lines, such as: “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in... more argued that the social contract on which modern governments are formed do not guarantee equality and protection for all. Instead, the social contract actually protects the interest of the few who have become wealthy and powerful. In 1972, John Rawls published his influential Theory of Justice where he argued that the principles of justice are more fundamental than the social contract and constrain it. In her book The Sexual Contract, Carol Pateman asserts that underneath society’s social contract is the “original pact” to subjugate women. She built her hypothesis on Freud’s theory of the genesis of society where men combined their forces to overthrow the ruling alpha-male so that they could share access and control of the females. The relationship between male oppressors periodically changes, but the underlying compact to dominate women remains. Charles Mill’s 1997 book, The Radical Contract, echoes this sentiment, and asserts that race is not just a social construct but is a political construct whereby the majority subjugates the minority. All sides of the political spectrum express concerns with majority rule, but champion it when it suits their needs.
Promoting and enforcing the concept of absolute majority rule creates the polarized society we see today. The more powerful and expansive majority rule becomes, the greater the conflict will ensue. For example, if the government deemed that it was in the public interest to promote the movie industry by selecting one film each month to be free to watch, people would fight over the silly issue of which movie the government would pay the cost of admission. When you apply this principle to more important issues, you end up with each side wanting a king to impose their will on the rest of society.
Fundamental Rights
The United States founding fathers recognized these concerns and insisted on a democratically elected republic constrained by a written Constitution that adopted the Bill of Rights to protect individuals and the minority from the majority. The checks and balances found in the United States Constitution are needed to protect society from the majority so civil society does not devolve into mob rule, such as reigned during the French RevolutionA.D. 1789 The French Revolution begins after the French government sought to finance its military engagements in the Seven Years’ War and the American Revolution through high and very regressive taxes. The Revolution would last 10 years and would be... more. How do we achieve civility in a postmodern world where truth is often viewed as relative? The key is to respect the fundamental rights of all, including the minority.
It is imperative that fundamental rights be guaranteed, not each individual’s whim. But what constitutes a fundamental right? What one personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more views as fundamental may clash with another’s person’s idea of their basic human right. This tension is evident in the conflict of the LGBTQ and faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more communities. One group asserts that nothing is more fundamental than a person’s identity while the other insists that nothing should infringe on one’s freedom of conscious. How do we deal with this conundrum?
Engagement with Others
Professor Tyler Roberts suggests that dialogue is the answer. He points to Diana Eck’s work as head of Harvard’s Pluralism Project as a place to find a solution to these types of conflicts. He said: “Diana Eck asserts that the key to pluralismIn the Middle Ages it referred to the common practice of clergy holding more than one benefice (ecclesiastic office with income) in order to accumulate wealth and power. more is not just tolerance of other traditions, but an active engagement, understanding, and encounter with the difference that transforms and deepens one’s own religious life.”5 A good example of the success of this approach is Utah’s law dealing with the complex issues regarding the LGBTQ and faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more communities. In his article “Taking Colliding Trains Off a Collision Path: Lessons from the Utah Compromise for Civil Society,”6 J. Stuart Adams, the Majority Whip of the Utah State Senate, discussed the process of creating a workable law and showed how “fairness for all,” which first appeared impossible, became achievable with expert assistance, ingenuity, and political will, drawing on a wellspring of good will built across years of dialogue between the faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more and LGBTQ communities.
The twentieth century Jewish philosopher Martin Buber’s insightful book I and Thou introduced the concept that we avoid meaningful relationships by keeping our interactions on an “I-It” level where we communicate with others from the perspective of the personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more being an object—friend or foe, right or left, black or white—or their position—student-teacher, manager-worker, customer-vendor. Buber(A.D. 1878–1965) Martin Buber was a Jewish philosophy from Austria who built his ideas on the foundation of existentialist philosophy. He was also a leading figure in the Zionist movement. more argued that to truly relate with others we need to move beyond the perfunctory level and engage with them on an “I-Thou” basis where we strive to see and interact with the whole personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more. As we connect with others as fellow human beings and not as objects, we encounter God and discover loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more.
Another twentieth century Jewish philosopher, Franz Rosenzweig(A.D. 1886–1929) Franz Rosenzweig was a Jewish theologian and philosophy from Germany. He was critical of Martin Buber’s views, especially of Zionism, yet they became fast friends and collaborated on a German translation of the Torah. more, echoed Buber’s thesis and said that we go to great lengths to avoid life by closing ourselves off from others. But the only way to become who we really are and experience a full life is to lower our shields and expose ourselves to the gaze and demands of others, and in the process encounter loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more. Discovering God’s loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more empowers us to overcome our compulsive avoidance strategies and more fully enter into the flow of life and truly live.7
Religion’s Role in Promoting Harmony
Contrary to the new atheist’s assertion, following the foundational principles of the religions we have reviewed, leads to increased harmony. At its core, each major world religion seeks to establish harmony. There is great crossover between the divergent religious traditions regarding the human quest for peace and meaning which provides common ground where divergent communities can meet and embrace.
It is an interesting phenomenon that mystical aspects of various diverse and even seemingly incompatible religious traditions often provide common ground where these traditions converge. For example, Sufism helps bridge the divide between the uncompromising monotheism of IslamIs one of the three Abrahamic religions (Christianity and Judaism the other two) that stresses the importance of the only one true God and man’s forgetfulness as source of sin. The religion was founded by Muhammad in the early 7th... more and the prolific Hindu polytheism with its 330 million gods. Mystics from one traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more often find useful insights in the mystic traditions of other religions, just as the famous Christian monk Thomas Merton sought wisdom from studying Buddhist, Taoist, and Sufi writings. In today’s pluralistic world, learning and discussing mystic traditions from different cultures may enhance our polarized society’s ability to coexist in peace and harmony. James K.A. Smith, a ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more professor of philosophy at CalvinJohn Calvin (A.D. 1509-1564) French Protestant theologian who lived most of his adult life in Geneva. He was the most influential figure in Reformed theology and author of the Institutes, the most important systematic theology text of Protestantism. more University and chair of its applied Reformed theology department, believes that mysticismIs a form of religious experience that is found in one form or another in nearly all religious traditions. In early Christianity, Pseudo Dionysius referred to it as “mystical theology” because it referred to aspects of an incomprehensible God that... more provides a path to overcome polarization in our postmodern world and build bridges between the academy, society, and the church.
The ultimate goal of Eastern religions is harmony. Hindus seek to escape the cycles of struggle associated with physical existence through reunification with the essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more of reality. Buddhists’ objective is to escape the inevitable grief that comes from attachment to temporalIs a technical term used in theology referring to this mortal physical existence in time as opposed to eternal divine existence outside of time. more things by releasing all desire to experience the peace and stillness of nirvanaThe ultimate goal in most Eastern religions referring to the end of the cycle of existence in the phenomenal world. This term in primarily associated with Buddhism, that teaches it is achieved through the extinction of the fire of life... more. Taoism recognizes the reality of opposite forces in nature and helps followers discover how to navigate through life balancing the Yin and Yang so they will work together to create harmony. Confucius taught a harmonious society was only possible if its culture was based on mutual respect, and individuals did not interfere with or inconvenience others. His key concept is that one’s charactercomes from a Latin word that basically means an “indelible mark” like a tattoo. Under Roman Catholic theology, this word is a term of art that refers to an indelible mark made on the soul by the sacraments of baptism,... more develops through positive social interaction, empathy, and compassion. He believed that communal harmony could be realized by transforming individuals and society through education and returning to traditions that emphasized the importance of the family.
Greek philosophy was deeply spiritual. It was constructed on the foundation of a metaphysical world where The Good was the source of everything. Joy and beauty flowed from the harmony realized by people and things fulfilling their telos or destiny, which humans realized by using their intellect to live a balanced life of reason.
Judaism is founded on God’s covenant with his people who promised to obey his commandment to, “loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more the Lord thy God with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might.” These words were so important that they were commanded teach them to their children and “write them upon the posts of thy house, and on thy gates.”8 Devout Jews follow this practice to this day. The lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more of Moses(Died c. 1400 B.C.) Moses was a Hebrew prophet who led his people out of slavery in Egypt. He instituted the Mosaic Law consisting of both ritual and moral elements. Many Christians believe that this law is part of God’s... more also included the commandment, “Thou shalt not avenge, nor bear any grudge against the children of thy people, but thou shalt loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more thy neighbor as thyself.”9
IslamIs one of the three Abrahamic religions (Christianity and Judaism the other two) that stresses the importance of the only one true God and man’s forgetfulness as source of sin. The religion was founded by Muhammad in the early 7th... more likewise teaches that God is intimately involved in our lives, and the loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more of God is the sole path to realize unity with God, our creator, our sustainer, and our beloved friend.
Christianity is founded on the idea that Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more personifies divine loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more. The great creator of the universe loved mankind so much that he condescended to become a human who suffered, bled and died to save the human race.
The Choice: Discord or Deepened Relationships
Conflict is a moment of opportunity in which we decide how to engage.
Which way will the water flow that defines our relationship, toward the shore of fear or that of love? When the water flows toward fear, the relationship is defined by recrimination and blame, self-justification and protection, violence and the desire for victory over the other. When the water flows toward love, it is defined by openness and accountability, self-reflection and vulnerability, mutual respect, dignity, and the proactive engagement of the other.10
The apostle JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more stated that “There is no fear in loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more; but perfect loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more casteth out fear.”11 If John and the major world religions are correct, loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more is the solution to the polarization discord, and futility found in the world today. JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more continued to say that we loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more God because he first loved us.12 This principle applies to human interactions as well. We tend to love those who loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more us. Love is a force that attracts and brings persons together.
In his Sermon on the MountA sermon by Jesus Christ early in his ministry in which he sets out the basic standards of the Christian life and discipleship. more, Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more taught that the zenith of human development is to love our enemies. He said:
But I say unto you, Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use you, and persecute you; That ye may be the children of your Father which is in heaven: for he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on the good, and sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust. . . . Be ye therefore perfect, even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect.13
Many people grossly misunderstand this verse and think that ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more was commanding them to never make a mistake. That is not what he said, which is clear when we notice that he was talking about loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more when he made this statement. Unfortunately, our English translation of what Jesus said creates this confusion. In the original Greek, the word that has been translated as “perfect” was telieos, which means complete, fully developed, or finished. If the writer had intended to say “error-free,” he would have used the Greek adverb akribos, which means “exactly and accurately.” So, in reality, Jesus’s message about loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more was that our ultimate objective or purpose in life is to develop our capacity to loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more as God loves. This is our telos.
Loving our enemies does not mean we do not have strongly held positions or boundaries, or we don’t defend ourselves from aggression, or we must maintain an abusive relationship. It means that we do not hold ill-will towards those we disagree with or who injure us because we have turned judgment over to God. The only way one can loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more their enemy is to completely turn his claim for justice over to an all-knowing, all-powerful, and all-good judge whom he can trust to execute perfect justice. This does not involve minimizing the offense but acknowledging the full extent of the harm and knowingly turning it over to One more capable of rectifying the situation and healing the injured parties.
According to Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more, developing the ability to loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more those who hate us is the pinnacle of our life mission. We cannot reach this level of loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more by ourselves. We need God to fill our hearts with his loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more in order for us to be able to loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more our enemies. As we invite God into our hearts to empower us to forgive and loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more others, we become more unified with the Divine than in practically any other way. Seeking God’s loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more to empower us to forgive others is the ultimate source of unity with God. This is what Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more pled for in his great intercessory prayer prior to his crucifixion:
Neither pray I for these alone, but for them also which shall believe on me through their word; That they all may be one; as thou, Father, art in me, and I in thee, that they also may be one in us . . . that the loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more wherewith thou hast loved me may be in them, and I in them.14
Years ago, when color printers first came out, a manufacturer ran an ad where one musical instrument played a catchy tune. Then the same tune was played by an ensemble of four instruments, followed by it being played by the force of a full orchestra. The narrator concluded the ad saying: “Our printers were always good, but now they are great!” The dissidence we hear in our diverse world of ideas is similar to an orchestra turning their instruments before a performance. But once they the performance begins, the diversity of the notes each instrument plays complements the whole. Instead of focusing on our differences, harmony will be realized as we demonstrate mutual respect and seek to understand one another.
This physical existence creates a dynamic universe. Things are constantly changing. Tension between opposites—love and hate, light and darkness, hot and cold—creates movement. This world of conflict creates the environment for us to grow, to use our free will to make choices, to choose loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more or hate, the warmth of relationships or the chill of separation. The choice is ours.
Conclusion of Our Expedition
We began our journey through history with these opening words of the Preface:
The world is sick and, like leech therapy of the past, today’s remedies do not heal but drain its patient of vitality, leaving it weaker and feeble minded. Society is convulsing with discord, futility and polarization.
At the heart of the human quest for meaning is a personal search for loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more and connection. In our world plagued by universal loneliness, the need for religion is as great as it has ever been. In the words of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more, “Seek and ye shall find.”15 But, as Johnny Lee sang, we have been “Looking for love in all the wrong places.” The remedy to society’s ills may simply be the revival of the age-old cure, religion. As we turn to the foundation of these world religions and philosophical ideas, we may find the bedrock of God’s loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more on which they rest, and discover that “Mercy and truth are met together; righteousness and peace have kissed each other.” (Psalm 85:10)16
What if the greatest crisis of our time wasn’t political, economic, or even scientific, but spiritual? The Human Quest for Meaning, presents an unflinching, scholarly, and soul-searching excavation of humanity’s deepest longings. This work cuts through the fog of postmodern relativism and the sterile worship of science to confront the core dilemma of our time: why does a civilization without God still hunger for transcendence? Drawing from ethnological studies, ancient texts, and forgotten philosophical wisdom, Hallstrom traces the arc of religious and philosophical history; not to convert, but to clarify. In a world obsessed with novelty, this book dares to remember.
In this book, readers will delve into the surprising belief systems of some of the most primitive cultures, exploring why they revered a moral Supreme Being contrary to modern theories of religious evolution. The text also revisits the foundations of Christianity, not as dogma, but as a cultural and metaphysical force that shaped the Western mind. The book further explores how modern secularism has gradually replaced meaning with a mechanistic worldview and why this replacement is now collapsing. It presents concise, accessible summaries of major world religions, from Hinduism and Buddhism to Islam, Sikhism, Taoism, and Zoroastrianism to help broaden a reader’s global spiritual literacy.
In the face of cultural amnesia, this work offers clarity and equips readers with the tools to forge their own enduring philosophy of life. Hallstrom writes with scholarly rigor but aims for accessibility, avoiding dry academic jargon while still delivering a serious intellectual exploration that reads smoothly like a story. While books on religion and philosophy are not new, Hallstrom brings a refreshingly countercultural lens.
Whether you’re a skeptic, a seeker, or a believer, The Human Quest for Meaning will challenge your assumptions, deepen your worldview, and perhaps even awaken something within you.
Available in hardback, audio, paperback and e‑book.
by C.S. Lewis
Mere Christianity explores the core beliefs of Christianity by providing an unequaled opportunity for believers and nonbelievers alike to hear a powerful, rational case for the Christian faith. Our moral consciousness and moral judgements are proof to the human race that a moral being exists—God. “C.S. Lewis is the ideal persuader for the half-convinced, for the good man who would like to be a Christian but finds his intellect getting in the way.” — Anthony Burgess, New York Times Book Review
Philosophical and Theological Writings
by Franz Rosenzweig
A collection of Rosenzweig's key theological and philosophical essays, including first English translations exploring German idealism and Weimar theology. This volume brings together Rosenzweig's central essays on theology and philosophy, including two works available for the first time in English: the conclusion to Rosenzweig's book Hegel and the State, and Rosenzweig's famous letter to Rudolph Ehrenberg known as the Urzelle of the Star of Redemption, an essential work for understanding Rosenzweig, Weimar theology and philosophy, and German idealism and the existential reaction of the period. Additional selections are presented in new or revised translations. Introduction and notes by Franks and Morgan set Rosenzweig’s works in context and illuminate his role as one of the key thinkers of the period.
Christian Theology: An Introduction 6th Edition
by Alister E. McGrath
“The genius of Alister E. McGrath is his remarkable ability to write in a clear, concise, and lucid manner that draws both teachers and students to participate with the great thinkers of the Christian tradition, past and present. Education and illumination are the abundant fruits of this massive, well-organized text, which is sure to appeal to a wide range of Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox audiences. For this we are indebted to the author.” Dennis Ngien, Professor of Systematic Theology, Tyndale University College and Seminary, Toronto, Canada. “For sheer comprehensiveness, clarity, and coherence, Alister McGrath has produced the definitive textbook. Always accurate and engaging, students are gently introduced to the gift of Theology in a memorable way.” Ian S. Markham, Dean and President of Virginia Theological Seminary.
by Alister E. McGrath
Regarded as the leading text in Christian theology for the last 25 years, Alister E. McGrath’s The Christian Theology Reader is now available in a new 5th edition featuring completely revised and updated content. It brings together more than 350 readings from over 200 sources that chart 2,000 years of Christian history, situates each reading within the appropriate historical and theological context with its own introduction, commentary, and study questions, includes new readings on world Christianity and feminist, liberation, and postcolonial theologies, as well as more selections by female theologians and theologians from the developing world, and contains additional pedagogical features, such as new discussion questions and case studies, and a robust website with new videos by the author to aid student learning. It is designed to function as a stand-alone volume, or as a companion to Christian Theology: An Introduction, 6th edition, for a complete overview of the subject.
Church History in Plain Language
by Bruce Shelley and Marshall Shelley
Bruce Shelley's classic history of the church brings the story of global Christianity into the twenty-first century. Like a skilled screenwriter, Shelley begins each chapter with three elements: characters, setting, plot. Taking readers from the early centuries of the church up through the modern era he tells his readers a story of actual people, in a particular situation, taking action or being acted upon, provides a window into the circumstances and historical context, and from there develops the story of a major period or theme of Christian history. Covering recent events, this book also: Details the rapid growth of evangelical and Pentecostal Christianity in the southern hemisphere; Addresses the decline in traditional mainline denominations; Examines the influence of technology on the spread of the gospel; Discusses how Christianity intersects with other religions in countries all over the world. For this fifth edition, Marshall Shelley brought together a team of historians, historical theologians, and editors to revise and update this father's classic text. The new edition adds important stories of the development of Christianity in Asia, India, and Africa, both in the early church as well as in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. It also highlights the stories of women and non-Europeans who significantly influenced the development of Christianity but whose contributions are often overlooked in previous overviews of church history. This concise book provides an easy-to-read guide to church history with intellectual substance. The new edition of Church History in Plain Language promises to set a new standard for readable church history.
Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years
by Diarmaid MacCulloch
The New York Times bestseller and definitive history of Christianity for our time—from the award-winning author of The Reformation and Silence. A product of electrifying scholarship conveyed with commanding skill, Diarmaid MacCulloch's Christianity goes back to the origins of the Hebrew Bible and encompasses the globe. It captures the major turning points in Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox history and fills in often neglected accounts of conversion and confrontation in Africa, Latin America, and Asia. MacCulloch introduces us to monks and crusaders, heretics and reformers, popes and abolitionists, and discover Christianity's essential role in shaping human history and the intimate lives of men and women. And he uncovers the roots of the faith that galvanized America, charting the surprising beliefs of the founding fathers, the rise of the Evangelical movement and of Pentecostalism, and the recent crises within the Catholic Church. Bursting with original insights and a great pleasure to read, this monumental religious history will not soon be surpassed.
The Story of the Christian Church
by Jesse Lyman Hurlbut
No institution has spanned more centuries and more continents than the Christian church. Its dramatic story is one of bloodshed and peace, corruption and purity. Here Dr. Hurlbut retells this story in an objective, concise, and clear style, emphasizing the spirit of the church, its growth and maturation, and the causes leading to historic events and their resulting influence. Accurate, up-to-date, and vividly presented, Hurlbut's Story of the Christian Church traces the six general periods of church history from A.D. 30 to the present day. A concluding section, covering the period since Dr. Hurlbut's death, has been added in this revised edition, thus giving the reader a complete, easily understood overview of the Christian church. Designed for two audiences, this book contains outlines and references in the margins to aid the student or teacher along with a continuous narrative and numerous illustrations for the general reader. It is ideal for Sunday school use, since it includes suggested outlines and review questions for each chapter at the end of the book.
The Story of Christianity, Vol. 2: The Reformation to the Present Day
by Justo L. Gonzalez
From Justo L. Gonzalez, author of the acclaimed three-volume History of Christian Thought, The Story of Christianity Volume II: The Reformation to the Present Day is the fully revised and updated second volume of The Story of Christianity. Gonzalez’s astute scholarship, lucid prose, and impassioned focus tell the narrative history of Christianity, beginning with the Protestant Reformation of the sixteenth century and leading all the way up to present day.
History Of The Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes In One)
by Philip Schaff
A monumental work tracing the development of Christianity from its inception to the modern era. Spanning eight volumes condensed into one comprehensive edition, Schaff meticulously examines the growth of Christian doctrine, the evolution of church institutions, and the profound impact of key figures and events on global religious history. Through detailed scholarship and engaging narrative, Schaff provides readers with a thorough understanding of Christianity's journey through the centuries, making this work an essential resource for scholars and enthusiasts alike.
Discourse on the Origin of Inequality
by Jean-Jacques Rousseau
"Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men" is a philosophical essay by Jean-Jacques Rousseau that explores the origins and nature of inequality among humans, arguing that moral inequality is a product of civil society and convention. Donald Cress's highly regarded translation, based on the critical Pléiade edition of 1964, is here issued with a lively introduction by James Miller, who brings into sharp focus the cultural and intellectual milieu in which Rousseau operated. This new edition includes a select bibliography, a note on the text, a translator’s note, and Rousseau’s own Notes on the Discourse.
by John Rawls
“A milestone in political and moral philosophy, as groundbreaking as the theories of Bentham and Kant and arguably the most important and influential piece of contemporary philosophy of the last century.” ―The Guardian
The principles of justice that Rawls set forth in this book are those that free and rational people would accept in an “original position” of equality. In this hypothetical situation, which corresponds to the state of nature in social contract theory, no one knows their place in society; their class or social status; their fortune in the distribution of natural assets and abilities―their intelligence, strength, and the like―or even their conception of the good. Deliberating behind this “veil of ignorance,” people naturally determine their proper rights and duties. Thus, as Rawls writes, “each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override.” Incorporating the ideas of Rousseau, Kant, Emerson, and Lincoln, Rawls’s theory is as powerful today as it was when first published in 1971. For more than half a century, A Theory of Justice has been taught and debated, celebrated and translated into more than thirty languages. This revised edition includes changes, discussed in the preface, that Rawls considered to be significant, especially to the discussions of liberty and primary social goods.
by Carole Pateman
Thirty years after its initial publication, The Sexual Contract remains a seminal work that challenges the standard view of the implications of the idea, deeply embedded in Western thought, that we should think of the state as if it were derived from an original contract. This idea lays the foundations for modern contract theory. In this book, leading feminist political theorist Carole Pateman revealed for the first time that we were only given half the story. The sexual contract that established men’s patriarchal right over women has been glossed over, and no attention is paid to the problems that arise when women are excluded from the original contract but incorporated into the new contractual order. Pateman’s critique of the traditional social contract continues to be relevant to discussions about the marriage contract and the employment contract, as well as newer cases, such as the welfare contract and the environmental contract. With an updated preface by the author, this edition speaks to ever-important questions about freedom and subordination.
by Charles W. Mills
The Racial Contract puts classic Western social contract theory, deadpan, to extraordinary radical use. With a sweeping look at the European expansionism and racism of the last five hundred years, Charles W. Mills demonstrates how this peculiar and unacknowledged “contract” has shaped a system of global European domination: how it brings into existence “whites” and “non-whites,” full persons and sub-persons, how it influences white moral theory and moral psychology; and how this system is imposed on non-whites through ideological conditioning and violence. The Racial Contract argues that the society we live in is a continuing white supremacist state.
by Martin Buber
2010 Reprint of 1937 American Edition. “I and Thou”, perhaps Buber’s most famous work, was first published in 1923, and translated to English in 1937. Buber’s main proposition is that we may address existence in two ways: [1] that of the “I” towards an “It”, towards an object that is separate in itself, which we either use or experience; [2] that of the ‘I’ towards ‘Thou’, in which we move into existence in a relationship without bounds. One of the major themes of the book is that human life finds its meaningfulness in relationships. All of our relationships, Buber contends, bring us ultimately into relationship with God, who is the Eternal Thou.
1 John 4:19.
1 Genesis 1.
2 Sean Carroll, Dark Matter, Dark Energy, The Dark Side of the Universe, (The Teaching Company, 2007).
3 A personal email from Brian V. Thomassen, 9-14-2024.
4 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, 1651.
5 Tyler Roberts, Skeptics and Believers: Religious Debate in the Western Intellectual Tradition, (The Teaching Company, 2009), Lecture 33.
6 J. Stuart Adams, “Taking Colliding Trains Off a Collision Path: Lessons from the Utah Compromise for Civil Society,” Chapter 21, THE CONTESTED PLACE OF RELIGION IN FAMILY LAW (Robin Fretwell Wilson, ed., Cambridge University Press, 2018).
https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3211314, downloaded 6-15-2024.
7 Franz Rosenzweig, The Star of Redemption, 1921.
8 Deuteronomy 6:5–9.
9 Leviticus 19:18.
10 Patrick Mason, Blessed Are the Peacemakers, J. Reuben Clark Law Society – Orange County, 21 November 2024, quoting John Paul Lederach.
11 1 John 4:18.
12 1 John 4:19.
13 Matthew 5:44–48.
14 John 17:20–21, 26.
15 Matthew 7:7.
16 See Religion and Spirituality: Tools for Better Wellbeing, blog Gallup, October 10, 2023; Faith and Wellness: The Worldwide Connection between Spirituality and Wellbeing, (2023), 4, https://www.faithandmedia.com/research/ gallup.
Timeline of the universe. At/after big bang., NASA/WMAP Science Team, c. 2006, [PD-USGov]
Rene Descarte, [PD]
John Locke, b. 1690, by Herman Verelst, National Portrait Gallery, [PD-US]
Jean-Jacques Rousseau engraving by R. Hart, [CC 4.0]
Franz Rosenzweig, unknown author, [PD-US]
Hindu Bride, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India, 2012 [CC 4.0]
prayers in mosque
Christ in Gethsemane, by Carl Heinrich Bloch, 1880, Brigham Young University Museum of Art, [PD-US]
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