The Donatist Controversy

Most bishops in North Africa required the lapsed Christians to be rebaptized as part of their public acts of penance, especially if they had joined a heretical spinoff religion. This expanded the dispute between the bishops of North Africa and the bishop of Rome regarding rebaptism.

However, a few African bishops sided with the bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more of Rome, creating internal friction within the North African Christian community. This tension became even more acute during the DiocletianDiocletian (A.D. 244–311) was a Roman Emperor who successfully stabilized the Roman Empire after nearly collapsing after a period of invasion, civil war, plague, and economic depression. Diocletian also led the last, largest, and bloodiest persecution of Christianity in the... more persecution between 303 and 305 CE, when many clergyconsists of the priest, ministers and pastors of Christian churches. In the medieval church this term referred to both regular priest who were monks subject to a rule (regula) of a monastic order and secular priest who were not monks... more succumbed to pressure and turned over the congregations’ copies of the scriptures to be burned. The faithful Christians called these priests “traitors.” Many of these traitorous bishops were the ones who did not require the lapsed to be rebaptized.

In the midst of this persecution, Roman soldiers had arrested and imprisoned a group of Christians for an unlawful assembly in a village near Carthage. These prisoners were from a congregation that required the lapsed Christians to be rebaptized in contrast to Carthage’s more tolerant approach. When friends and relatives came to bring food and water for the prisoners, the bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more of Carthage and his deacon, Caecilian, conspired with the Roman guards to prevent this kind act of mercy. These compassionate Christians were beaten and their food, dishes, and containers destroyed.1

A few years later when this bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more died, the rigorous faction hoped they could install a more worthy bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more in his place. However, despite the fact that traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more required the twelve bishops of the region to gather and electcomes from the Latin word “to choose” and is used to identify those chosen by God. In the Old Testament, the twelve tribes of Israel are the elect people of God; in many Protestant traditions the elect refers to those... more his successor, the tolerant faction rushed ahead and chose his deacon, Caecilian, to be the new bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more of Carthage. When the more numerous traditional bishops arrived, they unanimously objected to Caecilian on the grounds that the bishops who appointed him did not follow protocol, that Caecilian was unworthy, and that he was ordained by a bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more who was a traitor. The rigorous faction left and ordained their own bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more, creating two rival bishops in Carthage.2 This rigorous bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more soon passed away and was replaced by Donatus(c. A.D. 280–355) Magnus Donatus was the leader of a movement in North Africa that believed clergy who had fallen away needed to be rebaptized in order for their priesthood functions to be effective. This controversy embroiled the most of... more, from whom the Donatistinvolves a controversy arising in Carthage at the beginning of the 4th century and lasted until the 6th century. The dispute centered on the legitimacy of the appointment of imperfect bishops against the popular will of the diocese and the... more controversy derived its name. The Donatistinvolves a controversy arising in Carthage at the beginning of the 4th century and lasted until the 6th century. The dispute centered on the legitimacy of the appointment of imperfect bishops against the popular will of the diocese and the... more faction quickly gained majority support in both the rural and urban areas throughout North Africa, except in Carthage proper, and even there they had a strong presence. 3

The dispute became so intense that most of North Africa cut off its shipments of grain to Rome, on which the city depended. When ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more became the emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more, he wanted those shipments to resume, and he sought unity within the church that he had selected to become the glue to hold his empire together. In his Edict of Milan(A.D. 313) Emperor Constantine I and Emperor Licinius issued the Edict of Milan which expanded on the Edict of Toleration (Edict of Serdica) and granted religious liberty to Christians specifically, but also to all religions in the Roman Empire. more, he ordered that Christian church property be returned to the church and offered financial support to its bishops. But which of the two rival factions was entitled to the property and financial support? Because Caecilian was in concert with Rome and wanted the grain shipments to resume, ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more declared Caecilian the rightful bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more and cut off all support to the Donatistinvolves a controversy arising in Carthage at the beginning of the 4th century and lasted until the 6th century. The dispute centered on the legitimacy of the appointment of imperfect bishops against the popular will of the diocese and the... more faction. The Donatists appealed, and ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more appointed a panel of bishops to arbitrate the dispute; they, not surprisingly, ruled in favor of Caecilian. The Donatists again appealed and requested a new counsel comprising of bishops from Gaul, whom they believed would be more neutral. This request was eventually granted, but the bishops from Gaul were outnumbered by bishops from Italy, creating what the Donatists considered a rigged decision against them (the Council of ArlesThe first Council of Arles was held in 314 to deal with the Donatist controversy regarding the right of local churches to reject bishops due to alleged unworthiness. more in 314).

This pattern of the emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more calling councils to address theological issues and the bishops doing the emperor’s bidding continued for centuries throughout the Christian world. This practice is referred to as caesaropapism. Bishops voted one way on an issue and then many of the same bishops voted the opposite way a few years later, depending on who the emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more was and his position on the dispute. Even though most Christian historians try to emphasize the independence of the official church from the state, in reality, at this time, the separation was more for show, and the councils were more like advisory boards to the emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more than truly independent institutions. The imperial church was born.

The Donatistinvolves a controversy arising in Carthage at the beginning of the 4th century and lasted until the 6th century. The dispute centered on the legitimacy of the appointment of imperfect bishops against the popular will of the diocese and the... more faction considered themselves to be the only true Christian church and believed the rest of Christianity had been seduced by the devil and fallen away. They pointed to the persecution they received from the “official” church and civil authorities as proof of their correct standing with God. They believed that the true church of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more would not be unified with the corrupt secularOf the world in contrast to the divine. more world. This resonated with the majority of the Christians in North Africa because of their engrained traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more of reverence for martyrs. The Donatists and another rigorous faction in Alexandria became known as the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more of the Martyrs. This dispute continued for centuries. The Donatists survived the conquest of North Africa by the Vandals (who were Arian Christians) but eventually were squashed by the Muslim invaders in 692. 4

This belief in a strong separation between church and state and accepting persecution as a badge of honor was not extinguished and resurfaced over a thousand years later during the Protestant Reformation(A.D. 1517) The Protestant Reformation begins as Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses, largely in response to the widespread abuses caused by the aggressive commercialization of indulgences. more with the Anabaptists(A.D. 1525) Derived from a Greek word meaning “rebaptizers,” due to adherents’ insistence that infant baptism was not valid and that one must make a informed voluntary commitment as part of a baptismal covenant in order for the baptism to... more and their prodigy, the AmishA branch of Anabaptist that broke off from the Mennonites in the 16th Century. (See Anabaptists.) more and MennonitesIs the branch of Anabaptism begun by Menno Simons (1496–1561) as a pacifist reaction to the violent Anabaptist revolt in the Dutch city of Münster. Mennonites and the Amish offshoot is the primary form of Anabaptism that has survived until... more traditions.

The Donatistinvolves a controversy arising in Carthage at the beginning of the 4th century and lasted until the 6th century. The dispute centered on the legitimacy of the appointment of imperfect bishops against the popular will of the diocese and the... more controversy is arguably the most ignored pivotal point of Christian history. It is also a prime example of the victor writing history. This controversy set the future course for various important doctrinal issues, including the validity of church sacraments, the sacraments as means of graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more versus symbols of an inner commitment, common consent of the governed, priesthood authority, papal authority, Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more structure and succession, the imperial church, and the divine right of kings. Yet very few lay people have even heard of it. Even historians often mischaracterize the issues at stake and fail to realize its significance. Typically, this controversy is described as simply clarifying that the worthiness of a priest does not affect the efficacy of the sacrament more/ordinance he performed. At first blush, this seems fair, so people just pass over it. In reality, the controversy involved much more than this, and that is why the succession was hotly and violently contested for over 350 years until the Muslims conquered northern Africa.

Like so many disputes, this controversy was primarily about power and authority. The victorious Catholics framed the dispute as one dealing solely with the worthiness of the personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more performing the ordinance. Stephen, bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more of Rome, claimed that the efficacy of baptismFrom a Greek word meaning “to immerse;” and is an initiatory ritual washing whereby one becomes a member of the Christian community. It involves various symbolic meanings including, cleansing, the death and resurrection of Christ, and a sinners death and... more did not proceed from the personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more or from the dignity of the one who conferred it but from its administration in the proper manner.5 This argument is referred to as ex opera operantis (out of the action of the one doing the deed versus ex opera operatoA Latin phrase for “from the work worked,” which roughly translated means, “just by doing it correctly.”; It is a phrase used to describe the Roman Catholic view that the Mass is a sacrifice that is valid simply because it... more (out of the operation of the deed itself). Accordingly, the Roman Catholic Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more recognized any baptismFrom a Greek word meaning “to immerse;” and is an initiatory ritual washing whereby one becomes a member of the Christian community. It involves various symbolic meanings including, cleansing, the death and resurrection of Christ, and a sinners death and... more as valid no matter who performed it or in which sect, provided that it was done in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. However, confirmationis a term derived from the Latin word for “strengthening,” and is one of the seven sacraments of Roman Catholic Church and of the Eastern Orthodox Church. In Catholicism and Orthodoxy this sacrament involves anointing with oil and the laying... more could only be performed by an ordained bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more of a congregation in communionis derived from the Latin term communio, which basically means to have in common. Words such as “partaking,” “sharing,” or “fellowship” are often translations of this root term. Partaking of the Eucharist is often referred to as the sacrament of... more with Rome.

Cyprian(A.D. 210–14 Sep 258) Bishop of Carthage between 248 and 258 who sparked a controversy when he fled during the Emperor Decian persecution and then later returned to assume his post. Several persons opposed him retaining his position because they... more argued that the concern was not so much about the worthiness of the priest but the authority they held. He could not imagine that a priest of a religion that both Rome and the rest of Christianity considered to be anti-Christ could perform a baptismFrom a Greek word meaning “to immerse;” and is an initiatory ritual washing whereby one becomes a member of the Christian community. It involves various symbolic meanings including, cleansing, the death and resurrection of Christ, and a sinners death and... more that would be valid in the eyes of God. He wrote:

If they attribute the effect of baptismFrom a Greek word meaning “to immerse;” and is an initiatory ritual washing whereby one becomes a member of the Christian community. It involves various symbolic meanings including, cleansing, the death and resurrection of Christ, and a sinners death and... more to the majesty of the name, so that they who are baptized anywhere and anyhow, in the name of Jesus ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more, are judged to be renewed and sanctified, wherefore in the name of the same ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more are not hands laid upon the baptized persons among them, for the reception of the Holy Spirit? Why does not the same majesty of the same name avail in the imposition of hands, which, they contend, availed in the sanctificationDerived from the Latin word sanctus for “holy” and literally means “becoming holy.” In most Protestant theology it refers to the process of become a more moral individual through an internal transformation following justification that occurs at the time of... more of baptismFrom a Greek word meaning “to immerse;” and is an initiatory ritual washing whereby one becomes a member of the Christian community. It involves various symbolic meanings including, cleansing, the death and resurrection of Christ, and a sinners death and... more?6

By analogy, Cyprian(A.D. 210–14 Sep 258) Bishop of Carthage between 248 and 258 who sparked a controversy when he fled during the Emperor Decian persecution and then later returned to assume his post. Several persons opposed him retaining his position because they... more argued that one cannot deed title to a house just because they used the proper form. They also require authority to transfer title to the property in order for the deed to be valid. Bishop (Pope) Stephen’s reasoning was the basis for the Catholic doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more that one does not need authority to baptize in order for the ordinance to be effective. Currently, the Roman Catholic Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more justifies this practice by making a distinction between the validity and the efficacy of the baptismFrom a Greek word meaning “to immerse;” and is an initiatory ritual washing whereby one becomes a member of the Christian community. It involves various symbolic meanings including, cleansing, the death and resurrection of Christ, and a sinners death and... more. One that is performed by an ordained priest is both valid and effective, but one performed without authority is not valid, but it is still effective and will later become valid when the individual is confirmed by a bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more holding authority.7 However, the logic breaks down when one considers an infant who dies soon after it is born. If the nurse had enough presence of mind to baptize the newborn, the babe goes to heaven while the infant that is not baptized goes to hell, even though neither lived to be confirmed or receive their first communionis derived from the Latin term communio, which basically means to have in common. Words such as “partaking,” “sharing,” or “fellowship” are often translations of this root term. Partaking of the Eucharist is often referred to as the sacrament of... more at age twelve.

The Catholic doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of the sacraments being the means of bestowing graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more became more entrenched through this controversy. The idea that the ordinance itself bestowed God’s grace existed in the ancient Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more as far back as the early second century. This is partially why mothers started baptizing infants in an early period of Christianity and why others, such as ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more, waited until they were on their deathbeds to be baptized. It was the act itself that saved you, not an internal conversionThis term is derived from the Latin word for “turning,” and is a theological term that refers to one turning his will from evil to good and is generally used to denote one becoming a Christian and/or joining a particular... more of your soul.

A similar difference in framing the issues is involved with the selection and ordination to the priesthood. Again, the Roman argument frames it as simply being a dispute over worthiness. However, the Donatists also objected to the ordination of a new bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more based on breach of protocol and traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more. Bishop Irenaeus’s earlier respected treatise emphasized reliance on scripture and traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more, especially of the churches established by an apostle, as the means to determine orthodoxy. This was ignored when the tolerant bishops rushed ahead and ordained a new bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more without waiting for the majority to arrive. They also ignored the traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more of obtaining consent of the governed. The majority of the Christians in the area opposed the appointment of Caecilian. This action set the stage for subsequent appointments being imposed on the members without their consent. Anciently,

the electionFrom the Latin word for "choice," is a doctrine based on the concept that God chooses (predestines) some individuals to salvation while other to damnation. "Unconditional election" is a Calvinist label for the proposition taught by Augustine, Aquinas, Luther, and... more of the bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more of Rome (the popeThe Roman Catholic bishop of Rome who is regarded as the successor of the chief apostle, Peter, and as the Vicar of Christ is the holder of the Apostolic See and head of Christ’s church on earth. more) mirrored the electionFrom the Latin word for "choice," is a doctrine based on the concept that God chooses (predestines) some individuals to salvation while other to damnation. "Unconditional election" is a Calvinist label for the proposition taught by Augustine, Aquinas, Luther, and... more process for bishops in other towns: the local clergyconsists of the priest, ministers and pastors of Christian churches. In the medieval church this term referred to both regular priest who were monks subject to a rule (regula) of a monastic order and secular priest who were not monks... more were the electors; neighboring bishops acted as presidents of the assembly and judges of the electionFrom the Latin word for "choice," is a doctrine based on the concept that God chooses (predestines) some individuals to salvation while other to damnation. "Unconditional election" is a Calvinist label for the proposition taught by Augustine, Aquinas, Luther, and... more; and the laityOr “lay persons” is a term derived from the Greek word for “the people,” and refers to the rank and file membership of the church in contrast to the clergy. The distinction is much greater and more important in Roman... more indicated their approval or disapproval more or less tumultuously. 8

Even though the importance of traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more plays a major role in Catholic canon lawThe written decisions of councils, papal edits and legislation in the Catholic Church that form an elaborate code of rules and law. Protestants completely reject the authority of canon law. more, some of these traditions were changed early on. After ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more had brought security to the Church, the Christian Roman emperors often took part in the institution of a new popeThe Roman Catholic bishop of Rome who is regarded as the successor of the chief apostle, Peter, and as the Vicar of Christ is the holder of the Apostolic See and head of Christ’s church on earth. more and at times their influence was very marked. From the fourth century onwards, therefore, a new force had to be reckoned with. The occasion for the interference of the Roman emperors and later of the kings of Italy was afforded by disputed elections to the papal chair. 9

An epoch-making decree in the matter of papal elections is that of Nicholas II in 1059. According to this constitution, the cardinalOriginally derived from a Latin word meaning a “hinge” but soon began to denote “superior” after the term was used to honor the deacons of the from the seven regions of Rome in the 6th century. The honored title spread... more bishops are first to meet and discuss the candidates for the papacyThe office of pope in the Roman Catholic Church which is the highest office in its hierarchical structure. more, and select the names of the most worthy. They are then to summon the other cardinals and, together with them, proceed to an electionFrom the Latin word for "choice," is a doctrine based on the concept that God chooses (predestines) some individuals to salvation while other to damnation. "Unconditional election" is a Calvinist label for the proposition taught by Augustine, Aquinas, Luther, and... more. Finally, the assent of the rest of the clergyconsists of the priest, ministers and pastors of Christian churches. In the medieval church this term referred to both regular priest who were monks subject to a rule (regula) of a monastic order and secular priest who were not monks... more and the laityOr “lay persons” is a term derived from the Greek word for “the people,” and refers to the rank and file membership of the church in contrast to the clergy. The distinction is much greater and more important in Roman... more to the result of the suffrage is to be sought.10

The right of the laityOr “lay persons” is a term derived from the Greek word for “the people,” and refers to the rank and file membership of the church in contrast to the clergy. The distinction is much greater and more important in Roman... more in Rome to have veto power over an appointment of the Pope was eroded until it was finally extinguished in 1139 when a council decided the choice was the exclusive providenceThe word derived from the Latin word for “provide” and “foresee” that identifies the Medieval doctrine of God’s active benevolent sovereignty over all things and events in his creation, despite any appearance to the contrary. The universal belief in God’s... more of the Church’s cardinals. The deterioration of the laity’s right of consent throughout the Christian world can be traced back to the Donatistinvolves a controversy arising in Carthage at the beginning of the 4th century and lasted until the 6th century. The dispute centered on the legitimacy of the appointment of imperfect bishops against the popular will of the diocese and the... more controversy.

ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more changed Christianity forever when he created an Imperial church, and many of these changes are illustrated in the Donatistinvolves a controversy arising in Carthage at the beginning of the 4th century and lasted until the 6th century. The dispute centered on the legitimacy of the appointment of imperfect bishops against the popular will of the diocese and the... more controversy.

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