The Incarnation Controversy
Human Premortal Existence
During the early Christian era, the concept that each human soul existed as a premortal being was universally understood and believed by many, Christian and non-Christian alike.
Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more taught that human beings consisted of a physical body and an immortal soul which existed prior to birth. Death was the separation of the body and spirit, with good souls ultimately going back to heaven. The universality of this belief is evidenced by the story found in JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more 9:1–3. Jesus’s disciples asked him if a man born blind had sinned prior to his birth. Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more did not question or refute their belief in a premortal existence but simply stated that the man was born blind so the works of God could be shown through his miraculous healing.
Other Biblical verses reference this doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more. Paul(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 64) Apostle and early Christian missionary, whose letters are the earliest documents contained in the New Testament and thus the first extant writings in Christian theology. more was probably referring to this premortal existence when he confirmed to Athenian philosophers that their poets were correct: “We are the offspring of God.”1 “Then [with one’s death] shall the dust return to the earth as it was: and the spirit shall return unto God who gave it.”2 “For whom he did foreknow, he also did predestinate.”3 “[God] hath saved us, and called us with an holy calling … before the world began.”4
The concept that God entered into a covenant with mankind in this premortal realm is supported by Paul’s assertion that “God, who cannot lie, promised before the world began” this hope of eternal life.5 Paul(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 64) Apostle and early Christian missionary, whose letters are the earliest documents contained in the New Testament and thus the first extant writings in Christian theology. more directly implies that God extended this promise to human spirits before the earth was formed. Promises from the Judeo-Christian God are often expressed as part of a covenant between humans and deity, leading some to believe that eternal life is the reward promised to humans for compliance during mortality with a premortal covenant.
Origen(c. A.D. 185–254) Alexandrian theologian famous for his commentaries and homilies on the scriptures, which established a long-lasting tradition of Christian allegorical exegesis. Long after his death, his speculations about the preexistence and the Fall were a cause of intense... more (184–253 CE), the most renowned Christian theologian of the early Patristic Period, taught this doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more regarding a spiritual premortal existence and quoted Jeremiah 1:5 in support: “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee, and I ordained thee a prophet unto the nations.” Additionally, he quoted Romans 9:11–14 and argued that because God is just, the reason he loved Jacob and hated Esau before their birth had to be based on their actions in a premortal realm. He also referred to John the BaptistJohn the Baptist (c. 1 B.C.–c. A.D. 30) was a Jewish preacher and prophet, Jesus’s cousin, he taught salvation through a coming messiah, and he used baptism as a major sacrament to symbolize the beginning of a person’s new life... more leaping in his mother’s womb at Mary’s salutation.6
Earlier orthodoxDerived from a Greek term meaning “right belief” and also “right worship.” When the term is not capitalized it typically refers to teachings in Christian traditions that are not heretical. When capitalized it refers to the mainstream Christian tradition in... more Christian writers also referred to a human premortal existence. Justin Martyr(c.A.D 100–165) Born in Palestine early in the 2nd century, Justin was educated as a philosopher and converted to Christianity, retaining many of his Platonist convictions. He wrote an important Apology (meaning a defense of Christianity against the pagans) and... more (110–165) wrote about this premortal realm7 and the Recognitions of Clement states that the human soul existed before the world was created.8 The concept of individual premortal existence is found throughout apocryphal literature, including the Secrets of Enoch, the Wisdom of Solomon, the Assumption of Moses(Died c. 1400 B.C.) Moses was a Hebrew prophet who led his people out of slavery in Egypt. He instituted the Mosaic Law consisting of both ritual and moral elements. Many Christians believe that this law is part of God’s... more, and from the Nag HammadiA town in Egypt, situated on the Nile. In A.D. 1945, a collection of early Christian and Gnostic texts were discovered, including the Gospel of Thomas, estimated to have been written around A.D. 80. more library, the GospelEnglish translation of the Greek term evangelion, used in the New Testament meaning “good news.” This is a central term in Luther’s theology that emphasized the contrast between Law and Gospel. The Law condemn while the Gospel justifies believers through... more of Thomas.9
The belief in a premortal existence was embraced by the various Christian Gnostic sects that rivaled orthodoxDerived from a Greek term meaning “right belief” and also “right worship.” When the term is not capitalized it typically refers to teachings in Christian traditions that are not heretical. When capitalized it refers to the mainstream Christian tradition in... more followers in number. Tertullian(c. A.D. 160–225) North African priest and theologian, the first major Latin Christian author. Despite the large number of his writings that have survived, his influence was limited because at the end of his life he joined the Montanist heresy. more (155–240 CE), one of the most ardent opponents of Gnosticismis a broad label covering a wide range of non-orthodox forms of Christianity which proliferated in the early Church that devalued the material world and emphasized the need to acquire special knowledge to escape to a higher spiritual realm. The... more, attacked the doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of premortal existence because it was a fundamental Gnostic belief. He argued that both the human spirit and body are generated from their mortal parents: a concept he founded called traducianism. Jerome(A.D. 27 Mar 347–30 Sep 420) Jerome was a Catholic theologian who is best known for his translation of most of the Bible into Latin. Known as the Vulgate, his translation became the official translation of the Bible by the Church. more (347–420) later argued that only the human body originates from its parents and that one’s spirit is created directly by God, Who places it into a physical body at some point between conception and birth. This concept is called creationism, not to be confused with our current usage of this term referring to God’s influence in the creation of the universe.
The doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of human premortal existence fell into greater disfavor as the concept of the TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more developed. Theologians felt that universal premortal existence undermined Christ’s uniqueness and sovereignty. During the IncarnationA term derived from the Latin word for “flesh”, carnem, and refers to the doctrine developed during the Christological disputes of the 4th-6th centuries regarding the nature of Christ and the relationship between his divinity and humanity. Traditional Christianity adopted... more Controversy, the doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of human premortal existence was officially rejected in 553 CE at the Second Council of Constantinople(A.D. 553) The Second Council of Constantinople which is generally accepted as the fifth ecumenical council, follows a Cyrillian interpretation of the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon that reemphasizes the unity of Christ’s person. more, but no decision was made regarding the competing theories of traducianism and creationism. Today, Lutheran theologians are generally traducianists while other Christians tend to be creationists, except for The Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more of Latter-day Saints which believes in a premortal spiritual existence.
Who and What is Christ?
With the large influx of gentiles into the Christian Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more, the early Christian belief in a personal corporal God was displaced by the Greco-Roman philosophical concept of the One or the Good, which was a principle of power without a body, parts, or passions. It is important to understand that their use of the word passions did not just apply to strong emotions but to all feelings, including loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more and anger. The word actually meant suffering. That is why we refer to the last week of Jesus’s life as Passion Week. According to Greek philosophy, the objective of human existence was to use our unique human quality of reason to live a rational life. But, feelings move us (e-motion) and interfere with our ability to reach this worthy goal. Consequently, we suffer when we feel human emotions. These gentile Christians also could not imagine that the ultimate principle of existence, the One, the Good, the First Mover Unmoved, could be corrupted by emotions. The One was so perfect that nothing could change it. It was so perfect that it did not have any parts, and certainly, it had nothing to do with the dirty, corruptible, physical world. This gentile concept was transferred to their understanding of the Christian God, similar to the ideas espoused by PlotinusPlotinus (c. A.D. 204–270) was a philosopher born in Egypt under the Roman Empire. Plotinus followed the Platonic tradition, but adapted it with distinctly mystical or religious elements. In this form, it took on many similarities with Indian philosophy, but... more and the Neoplatonists.
The gentile Christians of the fourth and fifth centuries struggled with the illogic of there only being one God yet three: the Father, Son and Holy Spirit. So they devised the formula expressed in the NiceneRefers to the Trinitarian theology accepted by the Council of Nicaea in A.D. 325 that is the foundation of the “Nicene Creed” that was actually formulated at the Council of Constantinople in A.D. 381, that is accepted as orthodox theology... more Creed, in which there are three separate Gods with one essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more, one will, one entity which is eternal and unchanging. The formula was illogical, but it was acceptable because they reasoned that because God is incomprehensible, the mystery of the TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more made sense.
The acceptance of the NiceneRefers to the Trinitarian theology accepted by the Council of Nicaea in A.D. 325 that is the foundation of the “Nicene Creed” that was actually formulated at the Council of Constantinople in A.D. 381, that is accepted as orthodox theology... more Creed transformed the earlier concept of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more as a divine human spirit prior to his birth into a heretical idea. Based on the presumed truths of Greek philosophy, the fourth-century Christian community could not grasp the idea that anything eternal could grow and develop to become what its telos (ultimate objective or destiny) intended it to become. That was exclusive to the domain of this temporalIs a technical term used in theology referring to this mortal physical existence in time as opposed to eternal divine existence outside of time. more world. An acorn turns into a giant oak to later die and decay. Only imperfect temporalIs a technical term used in theology referring to this mortal physical existence in time as opposed to eternal divine existence outside of time. more things change. The concepts of perfect, eternal and divine were synonymous. If Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more was Lord, he always had to be God. The dichotomy between physical man and eternal God was irreconcilable. Hence, the idea that Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more was a human premortal spiritual being who became the God of creation and the Old Testament was unfathomable. Consequently, the idea that humans existed in a premortal spiritual realm with Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more and God the Father also fell out of favor and was eventually found to be heretical.
The Incarnation of Christ
So what was ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more? Debate and conflict regarding this question lasted over three hundred years and are known as the Christological controversy or, in layman’s terms, the incarnation controversy and the mystery of the incarnation of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more.
The word incarnation refers to the Trinitarian God taking on human flesh (carnem in Latin as in carnivore). Gregory of Nazianzus, archbishop of ConstantinopleWas established in A.D. 324 by Emperor Constantine as the Eastern capital of the Roman Empire. The city was built over the much smaller ancient city of Byzantium from which the Byzantium empire is named. After the fall of Rome... more, presented the concept this way at the First Council of Constantinople(A.D. 381) The First Council of Constantinople (the second ecumenical council) approves an expanded version of the creed of Nicaea, which is today called the Nicene Creed. more in 381: “Remaining what he was, he assumed what he was not.”10 In other words, this eternal, unchanging immaterial God without feelings took on the human frailty of a physical body with its imperfections, passions, and eventual death. He took our natural imperfections, suffering and vulnerabilities and united them with his perfect, unchanging eternal essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more. Gregory’s formulation was turned into the test to determine orthodoxy.
Gregory rejected the idea of his contemporary Christian theologian, Apollinaris(Died A.D. 382) Apollinaris was Bishop of Laodicea in Syria. He was an opponent of Arianism whose Christological views were also declared heretical at the First Council of Constantinople and quickly died out thereafter. more, bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more of Laodicea, who explained the incarnation of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more as the Logos (the Word) assuming a human body with a living soul but not a rational human soul. At that time, people believed that everything had an essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more or soul: plants, animals, humans, even the earth. Humans had dual souls, an animal and a rational soul. Apollinaris(Died A.D. 382) Apollinaris was Bishop of Laodicea in Syria. He was an opponent of Arianism whose Christological views were also declared heretical at the First Council of Constantinople and quickly died out thereafter. more basically argued that Christ’s divine rational essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more replaced the human fallible rational soul, but he kept the living animal part of the human essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more or soul. Nazianzus opposed this idea because “Whatever is not assumed cannot be healed.”11 ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more had to be fully human and fully divine, two opposites united in one being.
Cyril, bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more of Alexandria, emphasized the birth of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more to explain the incarnation of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more using Gregory’s approach, which was adopted as part of the NiceneRefers to the Trinitarian theology accepted by the Council of Nicaea in A.D. 325 that is the foundation of the “Nicene Creed” that was actually formulated at the Council of Constantinople in A.D. 381, that is accepted as orthodox theology... more Creed by the First Council of Constantinople(A.D. 381) The First Council of Constantinople (the second ecumenical council) approves an expanded version of the creed of Nicaea, which is today called the Nicene Creed. more:
We believe in one Lord Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten from the Father before all time; Light, from Light, true God from true God; begotten, not made; of the same essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more as the Father, through Whom all things were made; Who for us and for our salvation came down from heaven and was incarnate by the Holy Spirit and the virgin MaryMary (born c. 18 B.C.) was a Galilean Jewish woman and mother of Jesus. Christians believe that Jesus was conceived miraculously through the Holy Spirit while betrothed to Joseph. She has been venerated since early Christianity and is considered by... more, and was made a man [emphasis added]. He was crucified for us under Pontius PilatePontius Pilate (c. 20 B.C.–c. A.D. 38) was the Roman Prefect of Judea from about 26 A.D. to 36 A.D. Jesus Christ was tried by Pontius Pilate, who found him to be without guilt, but acquiesced to the Jews’ demands... more, and suffered and was buried, and rose on the third day, according to the Scriptures. He ascended to heaven, and sits at the right hand of the Father. He shall come again with glory to judge the living and the dead; His kingdom shall have no end. (Emphasis added.)
Cyril taught that ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more had only one nature which was divine (Monophysitism). He focused on the concept that the same being who was God was born of the Virgin MaryMary (born c. 18 B.C.) was a Galilean Jewish woman and mother of Jesus. Christians believe that Jesus was conceived miraculously through the Holy Spirit while betrothed to Joseph. She has been venerated since early Christianity and is considered by... more and became man. Jesus’s flesh became God’s flesh, one being, God, with flesh. He insisted on this by repeating, “MaryMary (born c. 18 B.C.) was a Galilean Jewish woman and mother of Jesus. Christians believe that Jesus was conceived miraculously through the Holy Spirit while betrothed to Joseph. She has been venerated since early Christianity and is considered by... more is the mother of God.” He attacked Nestorius(fl. early 5th century) Archbishop of Constantinople who denied that Mary was theotokos or Mother of God. His Christology was accused of splitting Christ into “two sons” and was condemned at the ecumenical Council of Ephesus 431. more, the archbishop of ConstantinopleWas established in A.D. 324 by Emperor Constantine as the Eastern capital of the Roman Empire. The city was built over the much smaller ancient city of Byzantium from which the Byzantium empire is named. After the fall of Rome... more, for teaching that Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more had both a human nature and a divine nature, sort of like two persons working in unison inside Jesus (referred to as dyophysitism, from the Greek words for two and nature). Nestorius(fl. early 5th century) Archbishop of Constantinople who denied that Mary was theotokos or Mother of God. His Christology was accused of splitting Christ into “two sons” and was condemned at the ecumenical Council of Ephesus 431. more felt that it was sacrilegious to call MaryMary (born c. 18 B.C.) was a Galilean Jewish woman and mother of Jesus. Christians believe that Jesus was conceived miraculously through the Holy Spirit while betrothed to Joseph. She has been venerated since early Christianity and is considered by... more the mother of God. He had no problem saying she was the mother of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more or the “God bearer,” but God was holy, had always existed, and was never born. So a theological war began which at first appears to be over semantics, but on closer examination it went to the core of who ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more was. Regardless, each side misrepresented the position of the other making the division appear to be much greater than it actually was. The real unspoken dispute was about power between two rival patriarchs.12
Ecumenical Councils
The emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more called an ecumenicalcomes from a Greek word for “worldwide,” and refers to both ancient church councils representing the whole church as well to discussions during the past century between Roman Catholics, Protestants and Orthodox churches regarding unification of the various branches of... more council to meet at Ephesus, the same city that previously worshipped the goddess Diana and had transferred that reverence to MaryMary (born c. 18 B.C.) was a Galilean Jewish woman and mother of Jesus. Christians believe that Jesus was conceived miraculously through the Holy Spirit while betrothed to Joseph. She has been venerated since early Christianity and is considered by... more. The deck was stacked against Nestorius(fl. early 5th century) Archbishop of Constantinople who denied that Mary was theotokos or Mother of God. His Christology was accused of splitting Christ into “two sons” and was condemned at the ecumenical Council of Ephesus 431. more from the start. Cyril was a vicious fighter who did not hesitate to use the monks and a group of vigilantes to violently enforce his edicts in Alexandria. He previously had ordered the massacre of Jews and pagans in Alexandria and many other violent acts in opposition to the civil authorities who advocated tolerance. He was an arrogant and shrewd politician who did not hesitate to use any means to ensure that his opinions would prevail. He borrowed a tactic from the bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more of Carthage’s playbook that started the Donatistinvolves a controversy arising in Carthage at the beginning of the 4th century and lasted until the 6th century. The dispute centered on the legitimacy of the appointment of imperfect bishops against the popular will of the diocese and the... more controversy. He took charge and started the council before many of Nestorius’s supporters arrived and lavished bribes on the court. Not surprisingly, the council concurred with Cyril and found that Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more consisted of one personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more, but through the communicatio idiomatum, the human properties of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more were shared with the divine Word of the TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more. Nestorius(fl. early 5th century) Archbishop of Constantinople who denied that Mary was theotokos or Mother of God. His Christology was accused of splitting Christ into “two sons” and was condemned at the ecumenical Council of Ephesus 431. more was banished, so he went to Persia, where his teachings survived in the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more of the East. This arm of Christianity expanded along the silk road all the way to China and formed a fundamental belief of the Oriental Orthodox traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more, as opposed to the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic traditions which followed this and later ecumenicalcomes from a Greek word for “worldwide,” and refers to both ancient church councils representing the whole church as well to discussions during the past century between Roman Catholics, Protestants and Orthodox churches regarding unification of the various branches of... more councils.13
Even though most bishops were satisfied with the finding that Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more was one personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more, they were concerned about Cyril’s teaching that ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more had only one nature. Another council was held, this time in Chalcedon. It found that ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more was one personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more but with two natures―one divine and the other human―which are “without confusion, without change, without division, without separation.”14 In other words, the two natures are not separated in Jesus, but they also are not amalgamated into one compound or confused with each other. Many of the followers of Cyril’s MonophysiteIs the doctrine that was rejected by the main church that the incarnate Christ only has one nature, divine. It is derived from the Greek phrase for “one nature.” more position didn’t like this illogical formula, so they broke off and continued emphasizing the divinity of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more, contending that his human nature was absorbed into his divine nature. They didn’t like the idea of a schizophrenic God. This reverence for the divinity of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more influenced the Christian CopticA branch of Christianity that was excluded from the Catholic and Orthodox traditions in the Council of Chalcedon in A.D. 451 that dealt with the incarnation of Christ. The Church in Alexandria, Egypt, that based on credible legend was founded... more traditions and grew to become the established Christian religion in Egypt and similarly in Ethiopia with a combined following of approximately 20 million today.
But that was not the end of the story. If God can’t suffer, and ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more is God, how do we explain Jesus’s suffering and dying on the crossWas an agonizing method used by the Roman Empire to execute slaves, rebels and others major offender to the order of the empire. In fulfillment of prophecy, this was the means by which Christ was crucified. Even though some early... more? The Second Council of Constantinople(A.D. 553) The Second Council of Constantinople which is generally accepted as the fifth ecumenical council, follows a Cyrillian interpretation of the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon that reemphasizes the unity of Christ’s person. more tried to fix this conundrum by reaffirming that Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more was God by being one of the TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more. Therefore, even though God the Father did not suffer because He was perfect and could not be moved by emotions, ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more had a physical body so he was able to suffer, and because he was also God, we can say that God suffered and died on the crossWas an agonizing method used by the Roman Empire to execute slaves, rebels and others major offender to the order of the empire. In fulfillment of prophecy, this was the means by which Christ was crucified. Even though some early... more. It gets even more nuanced. Because Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more has two natures, just his human nature suffered, not his divine nature, so he still remains an impassionate God. So God the Father did not assume our suffering and death. He did not suffer on the crossWas an agonizing method used by the Roman Empire to execute slaves, rebels and others major offender to the order of the empire. In fulfillment of prophecy, this was the means by which Christ was crucified. Even though some early... more. He cannot and does not have passions or emotions because he does not have a physical body. But ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more does, and because they are both part of the TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more, we can say that God suffered and died on the crossWas an agonizing method used by the Roman Empire to execute slaves, rebels and others major offender to the order of the empire. In fulfillment of prophecy, this was the means by which Christ was crucified. Even though some early... more, and that God does not have a body, parts or passions (emotions).
The controversy still did not end. Those who liked Cyril’s MonophysiteIs the doctrine that was rejected by the main church that the incarnate Christ only has one nature, divine. It is derived from the Greek phrase for “one nature.” more ideas taught that even though ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more has two natures, he only has one divine will. This dispute went on for quite a while, but eventually, the Third Council of ConstantinopleThe First Council of Constantinople convened in AD 381 is one of the most important ecumenical councils of Christianity. It dealt with issues of the Trinity, particularly issues involving the Holy Spirit. more was called in 680. There they found that ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more has two wills, human and divine, as demonstrated in his prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane, where his human will prayed to his Father to remove this cup of suffering, but his divine will, which was unified with his Father’s will, said, “Not my will, but Thine be done.”15
The After Effects
When the councils regarding the Trinity and the incarnation of Christ ended in 681, Christianity had fractured into various major divisions. The Western church (Catholic and later Protestant) followed the results of the Councils of Chalcedon and the Third Council of Constantinople which found that Christ has one persona with two natures and two wills. The Eastern Orthodox tradition affirmed that Jesus had two natures and two wills but emphasized his divine nature tilting toward Monophysitism. The Oriental Orthodox tradition grew in the east outside the empire, following Nestorian’s concept of Christ having two distinct essences, human and divine, that are loosely connected. The Christians in Armenia were strict Monophysites who believed that Jesus was fully divine and only “appeared” to be human while on earth. Conversely, the Christians in North Africa stressed the unity of the Trinity but split between the Donatists and the official church which was aligned with Rome. Egyptian Coptic and Ethiopian Christian traditions believed that Jesus’s human nature was absorbed by his divine nature. The Coptics also asserted their independence from Rome. Probably the largest group was Arianism, which had broken off earlier from the imperial church after the Council of Nicaea. Arian missionaries had spread this earlier form of Christianity throughout northern Europe outside the Roman and Byzantine Empires. By the end of this controversy, the Arian Germanic tribes had conquered northern Africa and even enthroned Arian emperors in Rome. The Arians did not believe in the Trinity but considered Christ an intermediary between God the Father and humans, subordinate to the Father.
The most fundamental dogmas of the Christian theology were formulated by quarreling theologians and imposed on the world by the Roman emperors. …The whole atmosphere of the councils was one of intolerance and selfish combat:
Nowhere is Christianity less attractive, and, if we look to the ordinary tone and character of the proceedings, less authoritative, than in the councils of the church. It is in general a fierce collision of rival factions, neither of which will yield, each of which is solemnly pledged against conviction. Intrigue, injustice, violence, decisions on authority alone, and that the authority of a turbulent majority, decision by wild acclamations rather than after sober inquiry, detract from the reverence, and impugn the judgments, at least of the later councils. The close is almost invariably a terrible anathema, in which it is impossible not to discern the tones of human hatred, or arrogant triumph, of rejoicing at the damnation imprecated against the humiliated adversary. Even the venerable Council of Nicaea commenced with mutual accusals and recriminations, which were suppressed by the moderation of the emperor; and throughout the account of Eusebius there is an adulation of the imperial convert, with something of the intoxication, it might be of pardonable vanity, at finding themselves the object of royal favor, and partaking in royal banquets. But the more fatal error of that council was the solicitation, at least the acquiescence in the infliction, of a civil penalty against the recusant prelates. The degeneracy is rapid from the Council of Nicaea to that of Ephesus, where each party came determined by every means of haste, maneuver, court influence, bribery, to crush his adversary; where there was an encouragement of, if not an appeal to, violence of the populace, to anticipate the decrees of the council; where each had his own tumultuous foreign rabble to back his quarrel, and neither would scruple at any means to obtain ratification of their anathemas through persecution by the civil government.16
Throughout this whole Christological controversy, one can see the tension between the Gnostic influence which wanted to emphasize the divinity of Christ, and the residual effect of the earlier idea of Christ’s premortal human spiritual existence that led some to emphasize Christ’s humanity. This tension continues to exist in various forms of Christianity to the modern day, even in Protestantism. The greatest loss to Christianity, however, was that it changed from being a religion of the heart and soul to one basically of belief and the mind.
Ethiopian Bible in English Complete
by African Scriptures Revealed
Uncover the powerful spiritual heritage of Ethiopia with this unique and fully translated Complete Ethiopian Bible in English, presented in a clear and accessible LARGE PRINT format. This rare and enriching collection goes beyond the traditional canon to include all 22 apocryphal books revered in the Ethiopian Christian tradition—many of which are not found in standard Western Bibles.
Church History in Plain Language
by Bruce Shelley and Marshall Shelley
Bruce Shelley's classic history of the church brings the story of global Christianity into the twenty-first century. Like a skilled screenwriter, Shelley begins each chapter with three elements: characters, setting, plot. Taking readers from the early centuries of the church up through the modern era he tells his readers a story of actual people, in a particular situation, taking action or being acted upon, provides a window into the circumstances and historical context, and from there develops the story of a major period or theme of Christian history. Covering recent events, this book also: Details the rapid growth of evangelical and Pentecostal Christianity in the southern hemisphere; Addresses the decline in traditional mainline denominations; Examines the influence of technology on the spread of the gospel; Discusses how Christianity intersects with other religions in countries all over the world. For this fifth edition, Marshall Shelley brought together a team of historians, historical theologians, and editors to revise and update this father's classic text. The new edition adds important stories of the development of Christianity in Asia, India, and Africa, both in the early church as well as in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. It also highlights the stories of women and non-Europeans who significantly influenced the development of Christianity but whose contributions are often overlooked in previous overviews of church history. This concise book provides an easy-to-read guide to church history with intellectual substance. The new edition of Church History in Plain Language promises to set a new standard for readable church history.
The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation
by Justo L. González
In The Story of Christianity: Volume 1, Justo L. González, author of the highly praised three-volume History of Christian Thought, presents a narrative history of Christianity, from the Early Church to the Dawn of the Protestant Reformation. From Jesus’ faithful apostles to the early reformist John Wycliffe, González skillfully traces core theological issues and developments within the various traditions of the church, including major events outside of Europe, such as the Spanish and Portuguese conquest of the New World. This updated and expanded edition incorporates recent archaeological discoveries about the life of Early Christian Communities, as well as important contemporary research revealing the significant role of women throughout the history of the church. With lively storytelling, The Story of Christianity provides a fascinating and panoramic history of the dramatic events, colorful characters, and revolutionary ideas that shaped the first fifteen centuries of the church.
What if the greatest crisis of our time wasn’t political, economic, or even scientific, but spiritual? The Human Quest for Meaning, presents an unflinching, scholarly, and soul-searching excavation of humanity’s deepest longings. This work cuts through the fog of postmodern relativism and the sterile worship of science to confront the core dilemma of our time: why does a civilization without God still hunger for transcendence? Drawing from ethnological studies, ancient texts, and forgotten philosophical wisdom, Hallstrom traces the arc of religious and philosophical history; not to convert, but to clarify. In a world obsessed with novelty, this book dares to remember.
In this book, readers will delve into the surprising belief systems of some of the most primitive cultures, exploring why they revered a moral Supreme Being contrary to modern theories of religious evolution. The text also revisits the foundations of Christianity, not as dogma, but as a cultural and metaphysical force that shaped the Western mind. The book further explores how modern secularism has gradually replaced meaning with a mechanistic worldview and why this replacement is now collapsing. It presents concise, accessible summaries of major world religions, from Hinduism and Buddhism to Islam, Sikhism, Taoism, and Zoroastrianism to help broaden a reader’s global spiritual literacy.
In the face of cultural amnesia, this work offers clarity and equips readers with the tools to forge their own enduring philosophy of life. Hallstrom writes with scholarly rigor but aims for accessibility, avoiding dry academic jargon while still delivering a serious intellectual exploration that reads smoothly like a story. While books on religion and philosophy are not new, Hallstrom brings a refreshingly countercultural lens.
Whether you’re a skeptic, a seeker, or a believer, The Human Quest for Meaning will challenge your assumptions, deepen your worldview, and perhaps even awaken something within you.
Available in hardback, audio, paperback and e‑book.
The History Of The Christian Church: From The Earliest Times To A.D. 461
by F. J. Foakes-Jackson
The History of the Christian Church: From the Earliest Times to A.D. 461 is a comprehensive book written by F.J. Foakes-Jackson and published in 1891. The book provides a detailed account of the development of Christianity from its origins up until the year 461. It covers the early Christian Church, the Roman Empire, the spread of Christianity throughout Europe and beyond, and the many religious and political conflicts that shaped the Church’s history.
Systematic Theology, Second Edition: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine
by Wayne A. Grudem
This new edition of Systematic Theology by Wayne Grudem may be the most important resource you can own for helping you understand Scripture and grow as a Christian. The most widely used resource of the last 30 years in its area with over 1 million copies sold, Systematic Theology by Wayne Grudem has been thoroughly revised and expanded (all 57 chapters) for the first time while retaining the features that have made it the standard in its field: clear explanations, an emphasis on each doctrine’s scriptural basis, and practical applications to daily life.
The Trinitarian Theology of Basil of Caesarea: A Synthesis of Greek Thought and Biblical Truth
by Stephen M. Hildebrand
Basil of Caesarea, the Great, has drawn the admiration of many for centuries. He was a father of eastern coenobitic monasticism, though Benedict of Nursia revered him as well; an author of orthodox Trinitarian theology and eloquent defender of the Spirit; a model of social virtue and concern for the poor; and an erudite preacher and able bishop.
by Athanasius of Alexandria
On the Incarnation contains the reflections of Athanasius of Alexandria, upon the subjects of Christ, His purpose on Earth, and the nature of the Holy Spirit. This work was composed partly to explain Athanasius’s thoughts on Jesus Christ and the nature of the Holy Spirit, and partly to refute the views of Arius, a rival deacon within the Egyptian church. According to Athanasius, God arrived on Earth as Christ to show humans a pure example of divinity – through this illustration, humans may themselves aspire to immortality.
by William G. Rusch
This volume explores the development of the doctrine of the Trinity in the patristic church as a result of the Arian controversy.
The Septuagint with Apocrypha: Greek and English
by Lancelot C. L. Brenton
If you’re a student of Greek, you’ll appreciate this handy volume. It gives you the complete Septuagint text in parallel columns with Brenton’s English translation. You’ll gain a better understanding of the Scriptures because the Septuagint vocabulary is frequently found in quotations and terms used by the New Testament writers. This edition of the Septuagint, including Apocrypha, giving the complete Greek text along with a parallel English translation by Sir Lancelot Charles Lee Brenton (1807–1862), is a photo-reproduction of the work first published in London in 1851 (Samuel Bagster & Sons, Ltd.).
The Two Treatises of Servetus on the Trinity
by Michael Serveto
One of the most radical dissenters of the early Protestant Reformation was Michael Servetus (1511-1553), who set forth his antitrinitarian beliefs in his best known work, On the Errors of the Trinity, in 1531. He believed that Christ less than God the Father, yet still divine, similar to Arius. He spent most of his life running from both the Catholic Inquisition and the Protestant Reformers. He was captured and put to death in 1553.
The Racovian Catechism: With Notes and Illustrations,
Translated from the Latin; To Which Is Prefixed a Sketch of the History of Unitarianism in Poland and the Adjacent Countries
Faustus Socinus introduced a second stream of anti-trinitarianism that held Christ was not of a lesser divinity than God as Arius taught, but was fully human. He wrote a number of works, but his Racovian Catechism is perhaps the best well-known. He fled persecution in Italy and went on to inspire the founding of the Polish Brethren, which largely inspired the Unitarian movement.
The Golden Thread: A History of the Western Tradition, Volume I: The Ancient World and Christendom
by James Hankins and Allen C. Guelzo
"...a monumental work of reclamation and revival...The Golden Thread comes as a history, an argument, a treasure hoard." — The Wall Street Journal. It is a sweeping, resource-rich history of the ancient world and Christendom—designed for students and lifelong learners alike, and faithful to the enduring legacy of the Western tradition. This is Volume I of a two-part series tracing the story of Western civilization from antiquity to the modern age. Where do the threads that form the Western tradition originate, and how were they woven together over the two and a half millennia before A.D. 1500? What are the sources of our modern ideas about science, freedom, equality, law, good government, and virtue? These are the questions explored in The Golden Thread, Volume I: The Ancient World and Christendom. The story begins with the seminal culture of the classical Greeks and moves through the Hellenization of the east following the conquests of Alexander the Great. Hankins then narrates the rise and dominance of Rome and the fusion of Greco-Roman and Judea-Christian cultures in the Christian empire of the fourth century AD. The volume follows the history of Christendom from the fall of the Western Roman Empire, charts its centuries-long rivalry with the Islamic world, and culminates in the emergence of European civilization in the Middle Age and Renaissance. Written by two of the most distinguished historians of our time. It includes nearly 1000 curated images—sculptures, paintings, and artifacts—from the vaults of the West’s finest cultural institutions. Readers are not merely told what happened, but shown what was created—page after page alive with the rich architecture, sculpture, music, and painting and maps that gave visible form to the West’s most enduring aspirations.
Christian Theology: An Introduction 6th Edition
by Alister E. McGrath
“The genius of Alister E. McGrath is his remarkable ability to write in a clear, concise, and lucid manner that draws both teachers and students to participate with the great thinkers of the Christian tradition, past and present. Education and illumination are the abundant fruits of this massive, well-organized text, which is sure to appeal to a wide range of Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox audiences. For this we are indebted to the author.” Dennis Ngien, Professor of Systematic Theology, Tyndale University College and Seminary, Toronto, Canada. “For sheer comprehensiveness, clarity, and coherence, Alister McGrath has produced the definitive textbook. Always accurate and engaging, students are gently introduced to the gift of Theology in a memorable way.” Ian S. Markham, Dean and President of Virginia Theological Seminary.
by Alister E. McGrath
Regarded as the leading text in Christian theology for the last 25 years, Alister E. McGrath’s The Christian Theology Reader is now available in a new 5th edition featuring completely revised and updated content. It brings together more than 350 readings from over 200 sources that chart 2,000 years of Christian history, situates each reading within the appropriate historical and theological context with its own introduction, commentary, and study questions, includes new readings on world Christianity and feminist, liberation, and postcolonial theologies, as well as more selections by female theologians and theologians from the developing world, and contains additional pedagogical features, such as new discussion questions and case studies, and a robust website with new videos by the author to aid student learning. It is designed to function as a stand-alone volume, or as a companion to Christian Theology: An Introduction, 6th edition, for a complete overview of the subject.
Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years
by Diarmaid MacCulloch
The New York Times bestseller and definitive history of Christianity for our time—from the award-winning author of The Reformation and Silence. A product of electrifying scholarship conveyed with commanding skill, Diarmaid MacCulloch's Christianity goes back to the origins of the Hebrew Bible and encompasses the globe. It captures the major turning points in Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox history and fills in often neglected accounts of conversion and confrontation in Africa, Latin America, and Asia. MacCulloch introduces us to monks and crusaders, heretics and reformers, popes and abolitionists, and discover Christianity's essential role in shaping human history and the intimate lives of men and women. And he uncovers the roots of the faith that galvanized America, charting the surprising beliefs of the founding fathers, the rise of the Evangelical movement and of Pentecostalism, and the recent crises within the Catholic Church. Bursting with original insights and a great pleasure to read, this monumental religious history will not soon be surpassed.
Ancient Christianities: The First Five Hundred Years
by Paula Fredriksen
How, over the course of five centuries, one particular god and one particular Christianity came to dominate late Roman imperial politics and piety. The ancient Mediterranean teemed with gods. For centuries, a practical religious pluralism prevailed. How, then, did one particular god come to dominate the politics and piety of the late Roman Empire? In Ancient Christianities, Paula Fredriksen traces the evolution of early Christianity—or rather, of early Christianities—through five centuries of Empire, mapping its pathways from the hills of Judea to the halls of Rome and Constantinople. The New Testament, as we know it, represents only a small selection of the many gospels, letters, acts of apostles, and revelations that circulated before the establishment of the imperial church. It tells how the gospel passed from Jesus, to the apostles, thence to Paul. But by using our peripheral vision, by looking to noncanonical and paracanonical texts, by availing ourselves of information derived from papyri, inscriptions, and archaeology, we can see a different, richer, much less linear story emerging. Fredriksen brings together these many sources to reconstruct the lively interactions of pagans, Jews, and Christians, tracing the conversions of Christianity from an energetic form of Jewish messianism to an arm of the late Roman state.
Catholicism: A Journey to the Heart of the Faith
by Robert Barron
What is Catholicism? A two-thousand-year-old living tradition? A worldview? A way of life? A relationship? A mystery? In Catholicism, Bishop Robert Barron examines all these questions and more, seeking to capture the body, heart, and mind of the Catholic faith. Starting from the essential foundation of Jesus Christ’s Incarnation, life, and teaching, Bishop Barron moves through the defining elements of Catholicism—from sacraments, worship, and prayer, to Mary, the Apostles, and saints, to grace, salvation, heaven, and hell—using his distinct and dynamic grasp of art, literature, architecture, personal stories, Scripture, theology, philosophy, and history to present the Church to the world. Paired with his documentary film series of the same title, Catholicism is an intimate journey capturing “the Catholic thing” in all its depth and beauty. Eclectic, unique, and inspiring, Bishop Barron brings the faith to life for a new generation in a style that is faithful to timeless truths while simultaneously speaking in the language of contemporary life.
The First Seven Ecumenical Councils (325-787): Their History and Theology
by Leo Donald Davis
This unique work illustrates the contribution of these Councils in the development and formulation of Christian beliefs. It then shows how their legacies lingered throughout the centuries to inspire - or haunt - every generation.
The Story of the Christian Church
by Jesse Lyman Hurlbut
No institution has spanned more centuries and more continents than the Christian church. Its dramatic story is one of bloodshed and peace, corruption and purity. Here Dr. Hurlbut retells this story in an objective, concise, and clear style, emphasizing the spirit of the church, its growth and maturation, and the causes leading to historic events and their resulting influence. Accurate, up-to-date, and vividly presented, Hurlbut's Story of the Christian Church traces the six general periods of church history from A.D. 30 to the present day. A concluding section, covering the period since Dr. Hurlbut's death, has been added in this revised edition, thus giving the reader a complete, easily understood overview of the Christian church. Designed for two audiences, this book contains outlines and references in the margins to aid the student or teacher along with a continuous narrative and numerous illustrations for the general reader. It is ideal for Sunday school use, since it includes suggested outlines and review questions for each chapter at the end of the book.
History Of The Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes In One)
by Philip Schaff
A monumental work tracing the development of Christianity from its inception to the modern era. Spanning eight volumes condensed into one comprehensive edition, Schaff meticulously examines the growth of Christian doctrine, the evolution of church institutions, and the profound impact of key figures and events on global religious history. Through detailed scholarship and engaging narrative, Schaff provides readers with a thorough understanding of Christianity's journey through the centuries, making this work an essential resource for scholars and enthusiasts alike.
by Will and Ariel Durant
A concise survey of the culture and civilization of mankind, The Lessons of History is the result of a lifetime of research from Pulitzer Prize–winning historians Will and Ariel Durant. With their accessible compendium of philosophy and social progress, the Durants take us on a journey through history, exploring the possibilities and limitations of humanity over time. Juxtaposing the great lives, ideas, and accomplishments with cycles of war and conquest, the Durants reveal the towering themes of history and give meaning to our own.
1 Acts 17:29
2 Ecclesiastes 12:7 (emphasis added)
3 Romans 8:29–30
4 2 Timothy 1:9
5 Titus 1:2
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13 Ibid
14
15 Luke 22:42
16