The Greco-Roman World

• Plato’s philosophy greatly influenced the early Christian debate regarding the nature of God,
• Aristotle’s philosophy was the basis for much of the scholastic movement in the  Church during the late Middle-Ages,
• Pilgrimages to Greek oracles paved the way to monasticism, and
• The Roman magisterial structure influenced the Church organization.

You may recall the comical father of the bride in the movie “Big Fat Greek Wedding” who proudly proclaimed that everything of value in the world today came from Greece. Considering the substance and volume of advancements realized in ancient Greece, this assertion is not far from the truth. His attitude regarding the unmatched significance of Greece was shared by many of the ancient Greeks. Alexander the GreatAlexander the Great (356–323 B.C.) was King of Macedon and went on to create one of the largest empires of the ancient world by the time he was thirty, extending from Greece to northwest India. He was undefeated in battle... more certainly believed that Hellenistic culture was the gods’ gift to humanity, which he had a duty to export throughout the world. Let’s take a glimpse at the Greco-Roman world and see if we can spot various ways it impacts Christian theology and influences society today.[/glossary]1

The emergence of individual rights and democracy in the Western World is traced back to Sixth Century B.C. Athens. The Greeks developed many of the basic rules of mathematics, particularly for geometry. The Pythagorean theorem is the bane of students to this day. These mathematical discoveries advanced the arts and architecture which continue to influence the modern world. The Greek physician, Hippocrates, is considered the “father of medicine.” Indeed, many of the advancements of science in the modern era that we view as original and monumental are simply reiterations and refinements of ancient Greek scientific ideas.2 Most people today will be surprised to learn that long before CopernicusNicolaus Copernicus (A.D. 1473–1543) was a Polish Renaissance-era mathematician and astronomer who made an early contribution to the Scientific Revolution by formulating a model of the universe with the Sun at the center with planets revolving around it, rather than... more declared that the earth rotated around the sun, Gregor Mendel experimented with the genetics of pea plants, and Charles DarwinCharles Darwin (A.D. 1809–1882) was an English biologist who formulated a theory of evolution in which the struggle for survival served as a means of natural selection similar in effect to selective breeding. This basic theory is now widely accepted... more wrote On the Origin of Species, ancient Greeks were teaching the essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more of the ideas these modern scientists “discovered.”3

This unbroken chain of Hellenistic influence stretches from ancient Greece to the Roman Empire(27 B.C.) After a period of unrest and competing generals jockeying for power, Octavian, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, becomes the first official Emperor of Rome, being known as Augustus. Octavian’s rule initiated an approximately 200 year period of... more, the Muslim golden age, medieval Christendom, the RenaissanceThe term derived from the Latin word meaning “reborn” that refers to the European cultural movement from the 14th to the 17th centuries that sought to advance learning through the recovery of classical texts and ideas and saw great advances... more, and modern science. When Rome conquered Greece, Romans adopted much of the Greek culture. Indeed, Horace wrote, “Captive Greece took captive her uncivilized conqueror and instilled her arts in rustic Latium.”4

Greek culture is the foundation of Western culture, and its philosophy greatly influenced Christian thought and dogmas. Above all of these great accomplishments, the greatest Greek influence on the world was classical Greek philosophy with its emphasis on the role of reason.

Greco-Roman Culture

Greek and Roman society was not particularly religious in and of itself. Instead, they were primarily concerned with order and stability. Consequently, religious practice played a vital role in maintaining this order in what is referred to as the combined “city of gods and men.”5

As such, religion was a public and political activity geared towards maintaining order in a civil society. The Roman Empire(27 B.C.) After a period of unrest and competing generals jockeying for power, Octavian, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, becomes the first official Emperor of Rome, being known as Augustus. Octavian’s rule initiated an approximately 200 year period of... more was particularly friendly to the new religions of its conquered people and tried to assimilate these conquered societies into the orderly Roman culture by claiming that all of their gods were basically the same as the Roman gods but simply were called different names. However, no tolerance was given to any belief that appeared to promote subversive ideas. This is where Christianity got into trouble.

This Hellenistic society was deeply stratified. A very small noble class owned great estates as absentee landlords. Depending on time and location slaves made up 25-50% of the population and provided much of the labor provided by technology today. Cities were large and crowded. Order was maintained in society through the practice of patronage. The wealthy noble class would distribute material benefits to their clients whom they felt were worthy in return for the honor these clients would bestow upon their patrons. Honor and shame were a major motivating factor of daily life. Greek theology mirrored this social structure. The gods grant blessings to humans who in turn owe honor to their patron gods. Consequently, Christian egalitarian teachings were initially considered a threat to stable Roman society. Later, the influence of this stratified world carried over into Christianity both in the social order of Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more organization and also through the veneration of saintsIs a term used in the New Testament for Christian believers. In Roman Catholicism it refers to officially canonized, deceased holy men and women who can intercede with God on behalf of ordinary men and women and whose ascension to... more.

As Hellenism expanded, it lost some of its spark. Instead of the exceptionalism and citizen participation that initially inspired classic Greek culture, over time mediocrity reigned throughout the empire, eventually leading to it being conquered by Rome. The middle class and the conquered people began to lose their sense of purpose and standing. Chance and fate emerged as inescapable forces more powerful than the gods. PhilosophyDerived from the Greek term “philosophia”, the term literally means “love of wisdom”. Philosophy usually involves questioning, critical discussion, and rational argument. Greek philosophy laid the intellectual groundwork for Christian theology, and the concerns of the two areas of inquiry... more shifted to providing therapy instead of expounding theory. PhilosophyDerived from the Greek term “philosophia”, the term literally means “love of wisdom”. Philosophy usually involves questioning, critical discussion, and rational argument. Greek philosophy laid the intellectual groundwork for Christian theology, and the concerns of the two areas of inquiry... more became the source of instruction for virtuous living, and religious life receded to a realm of superstition and rituals.

The Roman Empire(27 B.C.) After a period of unrest and competing generals jockeying for power, Octavian, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, becomes the first official Emperor of Rome, being known as Augustus. Octavian’s rule initiated an approximately 200 year period of... more consciously adopted this Greek culture. The Roman noble class utilized Greek tutors for their children in a concerted effort to more fully ingrain this Hellenistic influence in their lives. However, Romans valued the practical benefits of establishing and maintaining order more than the theoretical ideas of philosophy. This led to the pax romana, or the Roman Peace, one of the major contributions that Rome brought to the world. The heavy hand of Roman military rule eliminated bandits and pirates, thus facilitating peaceful travel and commerce. Rome created an extensive system of roads for military and commercial use and other infrastructure improvements, which also encouraged travel and an increased standard of living among its subjects. This carrot-and-stick approach of providing temporalIs a technical term used in theology referring to this mortal physical existence in time as opposed to eternal divine existence outside of time. more improvements along with the rule of lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more throughout the Empire, created a level of stability and travel between vast areas on a scale unheard of up to that period history.7 At the time of Christ’s birth, many persons in the Mediterranean world had lost faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more in the traditional pagan religion but still participated in its practice as part of their cultural duty. The influence of philosophy, which taught that there was one source of all creation, one deity, usurped the role of polytheistic religion, particularly among the more educated class, much like our society today places greater reliance on science as it becomes more secularOf the world in contrast to the divine. more. This void in the religious world would soon be filled by Christianity.

All these factors set the stage for the rapid spread of Christianity. However, Rome was constantly engaged in struggles to protect its borders from invasion from without and to suppress rebellion from within. This constant effort to maintain order over this vast empire created an environment where loyalty to Rome was paramount and any hint of disloyalty was aggressively repressed, which would lead to the persecution of Christians whose first loyalty was to their God instead of the Emperor.8

Roman Paganism

The Roman people believed that their societal and military success was the result of their dedicated devotion to the gods. They believed that divine forces and numerous deities controlled the forces of nature, objects, functions and the outcome of human activities. One of their main gods was the two-faced Janus, who was the god of doorways and their corresponding new beginnings, such as the new year. To this day, the world perpetuates the honor the Romans bestowed on Janus in naming the first month of year after him.

Honoring the gods was integral to their religion. The essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more of their religion was patronage, not conformitySee nonconformist. more to some moral code or belief in a particular creedis a Christian confession of faith that has obtained this title from the use of the Latin term credo, “I believe,” at the beginning of such formula of faith. Initially converts repeated a creed at the time of baptism but later... more. They honored deity so the gods would bless them with their desired outcome. Honor to a god was expressed primarily through rituals that needed to be performed in an exact manner in order to unlock the god’s power. These rituals typically involved the offer of a sacrifice in conjunction with an oath to the god. They believed that the sacrificial offering revitalized the deity’s power, thus engendering favor with the god. These public rituals were performed at temples on regular festivals scheduled throughout the year.

The priests who performed these rituals were generally the political leaders. Because the objective of religious worship was to derive favor with the gods, it was natural for the political leaders to function in this petition to deity on behalf of their subjects. This function flowed down to the local community leader in making offerings to the neighborhood’s patron god. The father in each home (the paterfamilias) functioned as the family priest in making daily offerings to the family’s deity on the altar in each home. Accordingly, the emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more was the chief high priest, the Pontifex Maximus, of the pagan Roman religion, which title was later transferred to the bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more of Rome after Christianity became the state religion.

One exception was the specialized augury priests, who divined the future and sacred boundaries by analyzing the flight of birds and their entrails. Romans believed that every individual, family, place, and thing was endowed with its own particular divine nature, essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more, or force, referred to as their genius (related to their origin), that would follow and look after them throughout their life or existence. Certain locations and objects were endowed with an extra portion of this divine essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more. Early Roman augury priests identified various places with an abundance of this divine force, which was where the Romans built their temples. Even the whole city of Rome was endowed with special powers. These priests were consulted before any major activity or military venture. Omens were taken very seriously. If the omens were not favorable, the political official usually would not proceed until they changed, typically through sacrifices to the gods. Consequently, the military maintained strong ties to their pagan religion, particularly the Zoroastrian god of light, Mithra, and resisted the spread of Christianity throughout the empire. The most oppressive persecution of the Christians grew out of a negative omen involving the emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more in the late third century.

Another exception was the vestal virgins, who tended to Vesta, the goddess of the hearth, and maintained the Roman fire of the hearth burning in her temple. They were selected at age six, began their ten years of training at age ten, directly performed their service for the next ten years, and then taught new trainees for their last ten years of service until they were forty years old. Each virgin strictly obeyed their vow of chastity on the pain of death. For over one thousand years, only twenty of these vestal virgins have been recorded to have broken their vow.

The Romans claimed that the gods were involved in the founding of Rome. According to their mythology, Aeneas, a Trojan refugee and son of the goddess Venus, brought sacred objects from Troy to Rome that were kept by the vestals in their temple. Later, Amulius dethroned his brother to become Rome’s king and ordered that his brother’s only daughter, Rhea Silvia, become a vestal virgin so the rightful king could have no heirs. However, she was impregnated by the god of war, Mars, through a bolt of lightning and gave birth to twins, Romulus and Remus. King Amulius ordered the twins to be thrown into the Tiber as punishment for Rhea Silvia’s apparent unchastity. However, the twins were rescued and raised by a wolf. They later returned to Rome and dethroned their uncle to reclaim their rights as heirs.

Afterwards, they quarreled while building Rome’s wall, and Romulus became the sole king by killing his brother. Romulus later assumed his role as a god in the heavens.

Rome’s supreme deity was the sky god Jupiter, who shared his throne with Mars and Quirinus, who were later replaced by the goddesses Juno and Minera. The concept of a triad of gods and goddesses sharing various positions of authority was a common aspect of Roman mythology, which contributed to or made the adoption of the Christian TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more more acceptable.

Romans assimilated the gods of the other cultures they were exposed to, a practice referred to as syncretism. As previously noted, they typically held that the gods of other nations were the same gods of Rome but were called by different names by these people. In other cases, they accepted the local gods of other people as legitimate gods for that area in accordance with the Roman understanding that different regions had distinct geniuses that corresponded to those gods. Interestingly, sometimes the Romans invoked a ritual inviting these foreign gods to take up residency in Rome.

Early on, the Romans were exposed to Greek mythology because of the Greeks’ presence on the lower Italian peninsula. They adopted much of this mythology with its pantheon of gods. The Greek god Zeus became Jupiter, Aphrodite became Venus, Poseidon became Neptune, Hades became Pluto, Artemis became the huntress Diana, and the god of war, Ares, became Mars.

Some Romans also adopted Greek and Eastern mystery cults, which promised secret knowledge, salvation in the afterlife, magical powers, and brotherhood through secret rites and oaths. Sometimes, these cults were looked on with disfavor as superstitions that could lead to fanaticism. But generally, they were viewed as an acceptable individual choice.

The Roman concept of each personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more being associated with a divine genius carried over to their view of individuals. Octavian’s victory over his rivals in Rome’s civil war after the death of Julius Caesar appeared to be divinely arranged. Octavian took on the name of the god Augustus to enhance that perception and pushed a religious revival throughout the empire. The imperial cult was born, in which the citizens revered Augustus’s genius as a god, which was so closely associated with the emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more that, over time, it became practically indistinguishable from those of subsequent emperors. Interestingly, the Roman senate determined whether an Emperor was truly a god after his death. The officially enforced cult of the emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more created serious problems for the monotheistic Christians, whose refusal to pay homage to the emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more as divine was viewed as subversion and treason.9

Middle Eastern Paganism

In order to understand the advent of Christianity, it is important to also realize what types of religions it typically replaced in areas Rome had conquered. The religions of the eastern Mediterranean area were generally orgiastic polytheistic religions consisting of gods of nature, the cosmosthe idea that the universe is one harmonious and orderly system. more or heroic ancestors. Often, the pantheon of gods included the god Baal and/or the goddess Ashtoreth. Worship of these gods often involved sexual activity associated with sacrifices, including human sacrifice, which the Romans outlawed. Like the Romans, the people in the region paid homage to their gods in hopes of eliciting their favor. There was generally no connection between a moral code of conduct and their religion. Instead, they focused on honoring or appeasing their gods in hope of good fortune.