Eastern Orthodox Theology, Iconoclasm and the Great Schism of 1054

The account of Jesus’s transfiguration on the mount is central to the Bible’s narrative of his life and central to Eastern Orthodox theology. Matthew recorded the marvelous event in these words:

And after six days Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more taketh PeterPeter (c. A.D. 1–65) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles. Peter was a critical witness to many events in Jesus’ life and took on a leadership role after the death of Jesus... more, James, and JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more his brother, and bringeth them up into an high mountain apart, And was transfigured before them: and his face did shine as the sun, and his raiment was white as the light. And, behold, there appeared unto them Moses(Died c. 1400 B.C.) Moses was a Hebrew prophet who led his people out of slavery in Egypt. He instituted the Mosaic Law consisting of both ritual and moral elements. Many Christians believe that this law is part of God’s... more and Elias talking with him. Then answered PeterPeter (c. A.D. 1–65) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles. Peter was a critical witness to many events in Jesus’ life and took on a leadership role after the death of Jesus... more, and said unto Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more, Lord, it is good for us to be here: if thou wilt, let us make here three tabernacles; one for thee, and one for Moses(Died c. 1400 B.C.) Moses was a Hebrew prophet who led his people out of slavery in Egypt. He instituted the Mosaic Law consisting of both ritual and moral elements. Many Christians believe that this law is part of God’s... more, and one for Elias. While he yet spake, behold, a bright cloud overshadowed them: and behold a voice out of the cloud, which said, This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased; hear ye him.

And when the disciples heard it, they fell on their face, and were sore afraid. And Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more came and touched them, and said, Arise, and be not afraid. And when they had lifted up their eyes, they saw no man, save Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more only. And as they came down from the mountain, Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more charged them, saying, Tell the vision to no man, until the Son of man be risen again from the dead. (Emphasis added.)1

Many Christian theologians believe that the authors of the synoptic gospels placed this story in the middle of their accounts in order to emphasize the significance of what took place. This is particularly true for the Eastern Orthodox traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more as this miraculous vision is central to their theology. Like Augustine(A.D. 354-430) Bishop of Hippo in North Africa, the most influential theologian of the West, known especially for his doctrine of grace, including related doctrines of original sin and predestination. more in the West, the Eastern theologians at that time also believed that viewing God was the telos or ultimate goal for human fulfillment and joy. The Eastern Orthodox traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more maintains that the beatific visionA Catholic concept advocated by Augustine related to seeing the essence of God with your mind’s eye, which is the ultimate goal of human existence. The term “beatific” refers to the bliss or ultimate happiness that one realizes in comprehending... more we seek to obtain in heaven is viewing the transfigured ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more just as PeterPeter (c. A.D. 1–65) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles. Peter was a critical witness to many events in Jesus’ life and took on a leadership role after the death of Jesus... more, James and JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more did on the Mount of TransfigurationRefers to the event referenced in the Synoptic Gospels when Jesus’ image was transformed by a glorious light in view of Peter, James and John on a mountain, See Light of Tabor. more.

Unlike Augustine(A.D. 354-430) Bishop of Hippo in North Africa, the most influential theologian of the West, known especially for his doctrine of grace, including related doctrines of original sin and predestination. more, who believed we would see the very essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more of God in heaven, the Eastern Orthodox believe that no one can ever see the essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more of God. No created thing can view or comprehend the eternal incomprehensible God. However, we can view the energiescomes from a Greek word meaning “activities,” “workings” or “operations,” and is a term of art in Eastern Orthodox theology that refers to the uncreated activities and glory of God as distinct from his essence. more of God, or his glory as manifested in the light shining from the face of the transfigured Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more on the mount. This divine light is referred to as the Light of Tabor, referring to the mountain where, according to their traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more, this miraculous transfiguration took place.

This light is different from natural light. It is transformative. This is divine eternal light that was never created, so both our physical eyes and our intellect can see it. This ties into the Platonian concept of eternal forms being reflected in material substance. This uncreatedThis is a technical theological term originating in Greek philosophy that is used to determine what is eternal and divine and what was created by the divine. The premise is that everything is either created by God or is God... more light is complete because it encompasses both the eternal form and its physical manifestation. This unity between the eternal and material realms is realized by viewing this divine light shining from the physical deified flesh of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more. This light in turn deifies those who see it. It is the graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more of God that transforms us into eternal beings, into gods. In the ancient world, people believed there were four basic elements: earth, water, air and fire. So, just as the higher element of fire can transform the lower element of iron into a glowing spectacle, we can absorb this divine light into our being and be transformed. We get a glimpse of this light by looking at and venerating icons—holy pictures of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more, MaryMary (born c. 18 B.C.) was a Galilean Jewish woman and mother of Jesus. Christians believe that Jesus was conceived miraculously through the Holy Spirit while betrothed to Joseph. She has been venerated since early Christianity and is considered by... more, the apostles and other saintsIs a term used in the New Testament for Christian believers. In Roman Catholicism it refers to officially canonized, deceased holy men and women who can intercede with God on behalf of ordinary men and women and whose ascension to... more. This is the foundation of the Eastern Orthodox concept of graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more, which is quite different from the Western world’s view based on Augustine’s sinIs violation to God’s Law, and implicitly includes disobedience to God’s the command to love God and one’s neighbor. See mortal sin, original sin. more paradigm.2

Icons are an integral part of the Eastern Orthodox worship service. Like Catholics, Eastern Orthodox chapels consist of the nave where the public worships and the sanctuary where the priest resides, but unlike Catholics, these areas are separated by a half wall adorned with icons of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more, MaryMary (born c. 18 B.C.) was a Galilean Jewish woman and mother of Jesus. Christians believe that Jesus was conceived miraculously through the Holy Spirit while betrothed to Joseph. She has been venerated since early Christianity and is considered by... more, and other great saintsIs a term used in the New Testament for Christian believers. In Roman Catholicism it refers to officially canonized, deceased holy men and women who can intercede with God on behalf of ordinary men and women and whose ascension to... more. This wall is called the iconostasis and has three doors through which the priest moves in and out during an elaborate symbolic liturgy more. The iconostasis is a sacred wall that acts as a sort of veil separating the visible temporalIs a technical term used in theology referring to this mortal physical existence in time as opposed to eternal divine existence outside of time. more world from the unseen holy place where God resides. The movement of the priest through the doors of the iconostasis is symbolic of God becoming human through the incarnation of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more and of humans entering and participating in the worship of God in heaven.3

The Eastern Orthodox liturgy more is a sensory experience. It involves the wearing of ornate vestments, chants, the generous use of incense and candles, and constant movement with processions of ministers and lots of bowing, all designed to provide a wealth of sensory impressions and awe.

Chants and breathing techniques during personal prayers play a unique mystical role in Eastern Orthodox worship, especially in the monasteries which are still an important aspect of this ancient traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more. A renowned Eastern Orthodox theologian, Gregory PalamasGregory Palamas (A.D. 1296–1359) Byzantine theologian, known for his articulation of characteristic Eastern Orthodox doctrines, especially the distinction between the divine essence and divine energies, the latter of which include the deifying light of the Transfiguration of Christ. more (1296–1359), argued that mystical experience, not rational arguments, lead us to discover the truth of God. All these liturgical and mystical experiences are related to the human-divine connection created by the incarnation of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more and potential human deification (theosis) which we discussed in Chapter X. This form of worship has been frozen in time since the ninth century at the end of the Great Iconoclasm, the greatest disruption in their traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more.4

Not everyone agreed with the use of icons in Christian worship. In the early Christian church, veneration of images was not allowed because of the Ten Commandment’s prohibition against idol worship and their association with pagan practices.5 However, humans often find it difficult to relate to an intangible God and like to have something tangible to help them focus their attention. Pagan religions throughout the empire universally used idols and images in their worship activity. With the mass conversionThis term is derived from the Latin word for “turning,” and is a theological term that refers to one turning his will from evil to good and is generally used to denote one becoming a Christian and/or joining a particular... more of gentiles, images of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more, MaryMary (born c. 18 B.C.) was a Galilean Jewish woman and mother of Jesus. Christians believe that Jesus was conceived miraculously through the Holy Spirit while betrothed to Joseph. She has been venerated since early Christianity and is considered by... more and the saintsIs a term used in the New Testament for Christian believers. In Roman Catholicism it refers to officially canonized, deceased holy men and women who can intercede with God on behalf of ordinary men and women and whose ascension to... more filled the role that had been played by the pagan heroes and deities. “A strong sacramentality and belief in the importance of physical presence also joined the belief in intercession of saintsIs a term used in the New Testament for Christian believers. In Roman Catholicism it refers to officially canonized, deceased holy men and women who can intercede with God on behalf of ordinary men and women and whose ascension to... more with the use of relics and holy images in early Christian practices.”6 So as more gentiles converted to Christianity and with the more relaxed practices after ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more made it the state religion, the veneration of images became widespread, to the consternation of some traditional bishops.

The incarnation controversy re-energized conservative bishops who disapproved of the use of icons. They argued that an image of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more obviously could not represent his invisible divine presence, so the picture either 1) only represented Jesus’s human nature, which would be improper because showing Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more as a separate personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more from his divinity would support the Nestorian heresyComes from a Greek term meaning “sect,” and was used by the early Church theologians to identify doctrines that they rejected as not orthodox. The term does not refer to unbelief but ideas held by some baptized Christian that was... more, or 2) the image mixed the humanity and divinity of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more which supports the MonophysiteIs the doctrine that was rejected by the main church that the incarnate Christ only has one nature, divine. It is derived from the Greek phrase for “one nature.” more heresyComes from a Greek term meaning “sect,” and was used by the early Church theologians to identify doctrines that they rejected as not orthodox. The term does not refer to unbelief but ideas held by some baptized Christian that was... more. So, either way, the use of an image of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more in a worship activity was improper, and if they shouldn’t use an image of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more, they certainly should not use an image of anyone else.

Leo III adopted this reasoning when he became the Byzantine emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more in 717. Shortly thereafter, he issued an edict outlawing the veneration and use of icons. Some scholars believe this was a reaction to the success of IslamIs one of the three Abrahamic religions (Christianity and Judaism the other two) that stresses the importance of the only one true God and man’s forgetfulness as source of sin. The religion was founded by Muhammad in the early 7th... more that had conquered two-thirds of his empire and also to a recent volcanic eruption, indicating God’s displeasure with this practice. However, Christianity was still in flux following centuries of theological controversy, and the issue regarding the appropriate use of imagery in the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more was still not settled. This ban on the use of images is referred to as iconoclasmIs the often violent destruction of religious images and works of art. There was an iconoclasm controversy in the Eastern church between A.D. 726 and 842. During the Reformation era, Reformed Protestant frequently destroyed Catholic religious art, including paintings, statues,... more, which literally means the breaking or destruction of images (Icon means image, and clasm means break.) This edict was very unpopular with many monks and the populace in general. Regardless, Leo and his immediate successors did not budge. Leo’s son, ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more V summoned the Council of Hieria in 754 to address this issue. The 338 bishops participating in the council declared:

Satan misled men, so they worshipped the creature instead of the Creator. The Law of Moses and the Prophets cooperated to remove this ruin…But the previously mentioned demiurge of evil…gradually brought back idolatry under the appearance of Christianity.… [T]the unlawful art of painting living creatures blasphemed the fundamental doctrine of our salvation―namely, the Incarnation of Christ, and contradicted the six holy synods.… If anyone shall endeavor to represent the forms of the Saints in lifeless pictures with material colors which are of no value (for this notion is vain and introduced by the devil), and does not rather represent their virtues as living images in himself, etc. …let him be anathema.7

Constantine’s son, Leo IV, was less rigid but still supported the ban. However, when he died, his wife, Irene, assumed power as regent on behalf of their young son and called the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, which declared:

Venerable and holy images are to be dedicated in the holy churches of God, namely the image of our Lord and God and Saviour Jesus Christ, of our immaculate Lady the Holy Theotokos, and of the angels and all the saints. They are to be accorded the veneration of honor, not indeed the true worship paid to the divine nature alone, but in the same way, as this is accorded to the life-giving cross, the holy gospels, and other sacred offerings.8

This council made a distinction between worshipping images and venerating the image as a representation of the personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more it presented. The veneration goes beyond the image itself and is directed to Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more or the saint the image represents. Today, the Roman Catholic Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more affirms the Fourth Council of ConstantinopleThe First Council of Constantinople convened in AD 381 is one of the most important ecumenical councils of Christianity. It dealt with issues of the Trinity, particularly issues involving the Holy Spirit. more as a legitimate ecumenicalcomes from a Greek word for “worldwide,” and refers to both ancient church councils representing the whole church as well to discussions during the past century between Roman Catholics, Protestants and Orthodox churches regarding unification of the various branches of... more council and concurs with its theology. Protestants, however, reject the Fourth Council of ConstantinopleThe First Council of Constantinople convened in AD 381 is one of the most important ecumenical councils of Christianity. It dealt with issues of the Trinity, particularly issues involving the Holy Spirit. more as a binding ecumenicalcomes from a Greek word for “worldwide,” and refers to both ancient church councils representing the whole church as well to discussions during the past century between Roman Catholics, Protestants and Orthodox churches regarding unification of the various branches of... more council. They generally view the distinction between adoration and veneration to be a game of semantics and disapprove of prayers to any intermediary between humans and God. Protestants view the use of icons for religious purposes as an improper innovation in the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more that was adopted from pagan worship.

Like most divorces, the official split between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches in 1054 had been brewing for a long time. The sad saga began back in the third century when DiocletianDiocletian (A.D. 244–311) was a Roman Emperor who successfully stabilized the Roman Empire after nearly collapsing after a period of invasion, civil war, plague, and economic depression. Diocletian also led the last, largest, and bloodiest persecution of Christianity in the... more split the empire into the Eastern and Western halves. ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more then built the new capital, ConstantinopleWas established in A.D. 324 by Emperor Constantine as the Eastern capital of the Roman Empire. The city was built over the much smaller ancient city of Byzantium from which the Byzantium empire is named. After the fall of Rome... more, as a Christian city in the fourth century. In the meantime, four competing patriarchs became regional heads of the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more in the Empire’s major cities of Rome, ConstantinopleWas established in A.D. 324 by Emperor Constantine as the Eastern capital of the Roman Empire. The city was built over the much smaller ancient city of Byzantium from which the Byzantium empire is named. After the fall of Rome... more, Alexandria and AntiochA large and important city in Syria and the meeting point of the East and West. more, with the bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more in Jerusalem holding a symbolic authoritative role. Only the patriarchies in Rome and ConstantinopleWas established in A.D. 324 by Emperor Constantine as the Eastern capital of the Roman Empire. The city was built over the much smaller ancient city of Byzantium from which the Byzantium empire is named. After the fall of Rome... more survived the Muslim conquests.

The Western Roman Empire(27 B.C.) After a period of unrest and competing generals jockeying for power, Octavian, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, becomes the first official Emperor of Rome, being known as Augustus. Octavian’s rule initiated an approximately 200 year period of... more fell in the fifth century and fractured into many different kingdoms, which CharlemagneCharlemagne (c. A.D. 742–814) was the eldest son of Pepin, who became sole ruler of the Franks upon the death of his younger brother Carloman. Charlemagne dramatically expanded the Frankish kingdom and was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope... more began to consolidate to form the Holy Roman Empire(A.D. 962) The Holy Roman Empire emerges in the Germanic areas and Northern Italy with Otto I assuming the imperial crown descended from Charlemagne. more in 800. During this period of decline, the papacy lost much of its power and suffered from internal corruption. The Eastern Roman Empire(27 B.C.) After a period of unrest and competing generals jockeying for power, Octavian, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, becomes the first official Emperor of Rome, being known as Augustus. Octavian’s rule initiated an approximately 200 year period of... more on the other hand, flourished and became the powerful Byzantine Empire, taking over portions of what used to be in the western half of the empire. Since ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more, the Christian church had become intertwined with the state, and to a great extent, the influence of their patriarchs reflected the political strength of their emperors. Consequently, the patriarch in ConstantinopleWas established in A.D. 324 by Emperor Constantine as the Eastern capital of the Roman Empire. The city was built over the much smaller ancient city of Byzantium from which the Byzantium empire is named. After the fall of Rome... more not only maintained a continual position of independence from the popeThe Roman Catholic bishop of Rome who is regarded as the successor of the chief apostle, Peter, and as the Vicar of Christ is the holder of the Apostolic See and head of Christ’s church on earth. more in Rome but also began to assert authority over the whole Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more. However, the papacy began a period of reform and reasserted its authority in 1049 when Leo IV became the popeThe Roman Catholic bishop of Rome who is regarded as the successor of the chief apostle, Peter, and as the Vicar of Christ is the holder of the Apostolic See and head of Christ’s church on earth. more.

Inevitably, secularOf the world in contrast to the divine. more politics influenced Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more politics on a major scale. Back in 589, a council in Spain added the phrase “and from the Son” to the NiceneRefers to the Trinitarian theology accepted by the Council of Nicaea in A.D. 325 that is the foundation of the “Nicene Creed” that was actually formulated at the Council of Constantinople in A.D. 381, that is accepted as orthodox theology... more Creed, so the sentence read, “The Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and from the Son.” This added phrase is the single word, filioqueLatin work translated as “and of the Son.” This term was added to the Western version of the Nicene Creed to indicate that the Holy Spirit “proceeds from the Father and the Son” which is referred to as the doctrine... more. This iteration of the creedis a Christian confession of faith that has obtained this title from the use of the Latin term credo, “I believe,” at the beginning of such formula of faith. Initially converts repeated a creed at the time of baptism but later... more became popular in the West, but the East rejected it as an unauthorized addition. They were orthodoxDerived from a Greek term meaning “right belief” and also “right worship.” When the term is not capitalized it typically refers to teachings in Christian traditions that are not heretical. When capitalized it refers to the mainstream Christian tradition in... more and did not take kindly to the West tinkering with the established creedis a Christian confession of faith that has obtained this title from the use of the Latin term credo, “I believe,” at the beginning of such formula of faith. Initially converts repeated a creed at the time of baptism but later... more without an ecumenicalcomes from a Greek word for “worldwide,” and refers to both ancient church councils representing the whole church as well to discussions during the past century between Roman Catholics, Protestants and Orthodox churches regarding unification of the various branches of... more council, especially when the creedis a Christian confession of faith that has obtained this title from the use of the Latin term credo, “I believe,” at the beginning of such formula of faith. Initially converts repeated a creed at the time of baptism but later... more expressly forbade such a change. But authority was not the only grounds for opposing this innovation.

The East thought this change was heretical because it changed the very nature of the Trinity. The only way to distinguish the three Gods of the TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more was through their relationship with each other. The Father filled the role of Plato’s first principle, the source of all things. This is referred to as monarchy, which literally means one arch, one principle, one source. So the Father begat the Son and the Spirit proceeded from the Father. The East did not have a problem saying that the Spirit proceeded from the Father through the Son because the Father maintained His role as monarch. But conflating the Father and Son as the source of the Spirit changed the dynamic of the TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more and diminished the role of the Father. This issue is referred to as double processionSee filioque. more. Certainly, such a drastic change would require an ecumenicalcomes from a Greek word for “worldwide,” and refers to both ancient church councils representing the whole church as well to discussions during the past century between Roman Catholics, Protestants and Orthodox churches regarding unification of the various branches of... more council to decide it.

Like most of the theological differences between the East and West, the West’s position was based on Augustine’s reasoning. He said that the Father and the Son share the same Spirit, so it is fair to say that the Spirit of God proceeds from both of them. Augustine(A.D. 354-430) Bishop of Hippo in North Africa, the most influential theologian of the West, known especially for his doctrine of grace, including related doctrines of original sin and predestination. more continued and reasoned that if God is one personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more, as the creedis a Christian confession of faith that has obtained this title from the use of the Latin term credo, “I believe,” at the beginning of such formula of faith. Initially converts repeated a creed at the time of baptism but later... more proclaimed, then we could look at the three components of the human soul—memory, intelligence, and love—and equate the Father with memory, the Son with intelligence (which corresponded to the Greek philosophical concept of the Logos) and the Spirit with Love, which bound the TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more together. Anselm(c. 1033–1109 A.D.) Monk, then abbot of Bec in Normandy, then archbishop of Canterbury (1093–1109); the first great medieval theologian of the West who is famous for his account of how Christ’s death made satisfaction for human sin in the... more, who later became the archbishop of Canterbury, reasoned that the West had to be correct because saying that the Son is begotten of the Father and that the Spirit proceeds from the Father is just a difference of semantics. So, if the Spirit only proceeds from the Father like the Son, rather than both the Father and the Son, then there is no difference between the Son and the Spirit.

In the midst of this debate, the Bulgarians converted to Orthodox ChristianitySee orthodox. more in 865 but aligned themselves with Rome and advocated for the universal adoption of the filioqueLatin work translated as “and of the Son.” This term was added to the Western version of the Nicene Creed to indicate that the Holy Spirit “proceeds from the Father and the Son” which is referred to as the doctrine... more. ConstantinopleWas established in A.D. 324 by Emperor Constantine as the Eastern capital of the Roman Empire. The city was built over the much smaller ancient city of Byzantium from which the Byzantium empire is named. After the fall of Rome... more regarded this as undue interference by the new Holy Roman Empire(A.D. 962) The Holy Roman Empire emerges in the Germanic areas and Northern Italy with Otto I assuming the imperial crown descended from Charlemagne. more in their neighborhood. Consequently, the patriarch denounced the filioqueLatin work translated as “and of the Son.” This term was added to the Western version of the Nicene Creed to indicate that the Holy Spirit “proceeds from the Father and the Son” which is referred to as the doctrine... more as heretical and held a council that excommunicated the popeThe Roman Catholic bishop of Rome who is regarded as the successor of the chief apostle, Peter, and as the Vicar of Christ is the holder of the Apostolic See and head of Christ’s church on earth. more. When Bulgaria changed sides and united with the Byzantian Empire, peace was restored and the popeThe Roman Catholic bishop of Rome who is regarded as the successor of the chief apostle, Peter, and as the Vicar of Christ is the holder of the Apostolic See and head of Christ’s church on earth. more and the patriarch got back on speaking terms. However, the double processionSee filioque. more controversy was never settled and simmered under the surface for over a century.

The dispute resurfaced with a vengeance around the year 1000 when Rome tried to impose the addition of the filioqueLatin work translated as “and of the Son.” This term was added to the Western version of the Nicene Creed to indicate that the Holy Spirit “proceeds from the Father and the Son” which is referred to as the doctrine... more on the East. Tempers flared and Christian goodwill fled the scene. The papacyThe office of pope in the Roman Catholic Church which is the highest office in its hierarchical structure. more required the Greek churches located in southern Italy, which had recently been liberated from the Byzantine Empire, to use the filioqueLatin work translated as “and of the Son.” This term was added to the Western version of the Nicene Creed to indicate that the Holy Spirit “proceeds from the Father and the Son” which is referred to as the doctrine... more. In return, the patriarch in ConstantinopleWas established in A.D. 324 by Emperor Constantine as the Eastern capital of the Roman Empire. The city was built over the much smaller ancient city of Byzantium from which the Byzantium empire is named. After the fall of Rome... more insisted that the Latin churches in the city use the traditional version of the NiceneRefers to the Trinitarian theology accepted by the Council of Nicaea in A.D. 325 that is the foundation of the “Nicene Creed” that was actually formulated at the Council of Constantinople in A.D. 381, that is accepted as orthodox theology... more Creed. The patriarch encouraged the archbishop in Bulgaria to champion their cause, so he wrote a letter to the popeThe Roman Catholic bishop of Rome who is regarded as the successor of the chief apostle, Peter, and as the Vicar of Christ is the holder of the Apostolic See and head of Christ’s church on earth. more and all the bishops in the West condemning their adoption of double processionSee filioque. more and addressing other liturgical and disciplinary issues. This led to the popeThe Roman Catholic bishop of Rome who is regarded as the successor of the chief apostle, Peter, and as the Vicar of Christ is the holder of the Apostolic See and head of Christ’s church on earth. more sending an embassy to ConstantinopleWas established in A.D. 324 by Emperor Constantine as the Eastern capital of the Roman Empire. The city was built over the much smaller ancient city of Byzantium from which the Byzantium empire is named. After the fall of Rome... more led by Cardinal Humbert(c. A.D. 1000–1061) Was a French Benedictine monk and friend of Pope Leo IX, who sent Humber to Constantinople to mediate a dispute with the Eastern Church over the West’s change of the Nicene Creed. Humbert was a strong advocate... more. Humbert’s arrogance was matched by the patriarch’s. On July 16, 1054, Humbert(c. A.D. 1000–1061) Was a French Benedictine monk and friend of Pope Leo IX, who sent Humber to Constantinople to mediate a dispute with the Eastern Church over the West’s change of the Nicene Creed. Humbert was a strong advocate... more and his legates laid a notice of the patriarch’s excommunicationis a Christian church’s formal expulsion of a baptized member from that religious community. The term is derived the official act of refusing a person to participate in communion of the Lord’s Supper. In the early church bishops often excommunicated... more on the altar of the Hagia Sophia cathedral while the patriarch was officiating. There could not have been a greater insult! The patriarch immediately convened a synodA regional meeting of clergy from more than one local or regional church. These are smaller gatherings than ecumenical councils. more and excommunicated Humbert(c. A.D. 1000–1061) Was a French Benedictine monk and friend of Pope Leo IX, who sent Humber to Constantinople to mediate a dispute with the Eastern Church over the West’s change of the Nicene Creed. Humbert was a strong advocate... more and his associates. The long-developing schism had now become final.9

Throughout this whole time, the Eastern church was intimately intertwined with the state and its patriarch with the emperors. The Byzantine Empire eventually fell to the Muslim Ottoman Empire(A.D. 1299) Osman I unifies disparate and fractured kingdoms in Asia Minor and establishes the Ottoman Empire. more in 1453. The center of the Eastern Orthodox church then moved north to Russia, where this model of a symbiotic relationship between the church patriarch and the emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more continued with the czars (Caesars).

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