Early Western Philosophy

Socrates

Socrates(470–399 B.C.). Socrates is credited with being the father of philosophy because he taught that the individual must begin by first examining himself. He challenged many assumptions and insisted on defining terms at the beginning of a debate in order... more (470–399 B.C.) is the most famous philosopher for a reason. Philosophers before him were mainly concerned with explaining physical phenomena and less concerned with the inner man. Socrates(470–399 B.C.). Socrates is credited with being the father of philosophy because he taught that the individual must begin by first examining himself. He challenged many assumptions and insisted on defining terms at the beginning of a debate in order... more is credited with being the father of philosophy because he taught that the individual must begin by first examining himself. One needs to “Know thyself” in order to examine the world. Even then, he exclaimed, “One thing I know, and that is that I know nothing.” The basis of his approach to reason was to doubt everything, be inquisitive, and to ask questions. He taught by asking questions, a practice utilized in lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more schools to this day. The Socratic method insists on defining terms before any debate, logical thinking and accurate analysis. He believed in one God, but endeavored to create a moral system independent of religion that was reasonable for all to follow, regardless of their religious understanding. He gave birth to philosophy that was concerned with the morality of humans and society and not simply based on our interaction with the material world.

However, many of his contemporaries were upset with his corrupting influence on the youth of his day. He wandered about with no visible means of support, entertaining the questions of wealthy youth who flocked to him. He undermined their faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more in the gods of Olympus and the established order of their civilization. He distrusted democracy for its tendency to dumb down society and reward mediocrity. When an aristocratic minority’s revolution failed, Socrates’ fate was set. Even though he was personally quite pacific, he was still the intellectual source of the rebellion. Given a chance to recant or escape by bribery, he refused. He stated that he had to remain true to the inner voice that directed his thoughts and actions. So hemlock became his last meal while several faithful followers endeavored to save him. One of those followers was Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more (428–348 B.C.), the Greek philosopher who would have a huge influence on formative early Christian concepts.1

Upon reading Plato’s apologyA writing that that defends one’s beliefs against critics. more for Socrates(470–399 B.C.). Socrates is credited with being the father of philosophy because he taught that the individual must begin by first examining himself. He challenged many assumptions and insisted on defining terms at the beginning of a debate in order... more, one of my astonished teenage sons remarked, “I didn’t know ancient philosophers believed in following the voice of the Spirit, like they teach in Church?” Socrates’ dedication to truth still influences youth today.

Plato

After Socrates’ death, twenty-eight year-old Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more realized that Athens was no longer safe, so he left and traveled the world, continuing Socrates(470–399 B.C.). Socrates is credited with being the father of philosophy because he taught that the individual must begin by first examining himself. He challenged many assumptions and insisted on defining terms at the beginning of a debate in order... more quest for truth. He visited Italy, Egypt, Judea, and India. He returned to Greece as a well traveled 40 year-old man. The first Christian philosopher, Justin Martyr(c.A.D 100–165) Born in Palestine early in the 2nd century, Justin was educated as a philosopher and converted to Christianity, retaining many of his Platonist convictions. He wrote an important Apology (meaning a defense of Christianity against the pagans) and... more (110–155 A.D.), insisted that Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more adopted many concepts from Judaism while developing his philosophy. Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more believed in one God, that humans come down to earth from a pre-mortal existence with God and will either go back up to heaven or down to hell when we die. The Christian concept of a person’s ultimate end being either in heaven above the earth or in hell below comes from Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more, which binary concept replaced Paul’s teachings of three heavens or degrees of glory.

Plato ascribes many of his teachings to Socrates(470–399 B.C.). Socrates is credited with being the father of philosophy because he taught that the individual must begin by first examining himself. He challenged many assumptions and insisted on defining terms at the beginning of a debate in order... more, but eloquently elaborates on them. Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more believed in a duelist view of existence, a temporalIs a technical term used in theology referring to this mortal physical existence in time as opposed to eternal divine existence outside of time. more world and a non-material world. This physical world was created by a transcendent eternal being, a master craftsman, who initiated time and fashioned this material universe in replica of a pre-existing eternal model. This eternal model is the essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more of and more real than the physical substance we touch with our hands and see with our eyes. This eternal essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more is the intellectual ideal of the material replica. The circle or triangle we see in our mind’s eye is more real than the one we draw on the chalkboard because the image we hold in our mind is flawless, not subject to distortion, and eternal while the image on the board is imperfect and will soon be erased. Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more called these eternal unvarying ideals forms. Think of forms as the intellectual property of a patented invention that is worth much more than the first physical prototype.

These non-material intelligible forms always existed in the mind of the eternal craftsman, and he used them to impose mathematical order on chaos to organize an orderly universe. The pre-cosmic universe consisted of eternal pre-existing substrata substance that moved in an erratic disorganized manner and produced only traces of the four fundamental elements, earth, air, water and fire that these substrata particles would eventually become. These quasi-particles acted as receptacles that the divine craftsman filled with these intelligible forms to create matter, and through a process, brought order to the universe. Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more refers to the universe as a living organism that possesses intelligence associated with these forms which he views as a sort of soul. Souls of individual humans consist of this same class of intelligence or soul as the universe, but at a lower level. Early Christians liked this concept and adapted it to a belief that God imbued matter with a portion of his graceIs a term used to identify unmerited assistance by God primarily to redeem and transform human beings. In the early and medieval church it also referred to God’s influence throughout existence. Redemptive grace is important to Augustinian theology which has... more and thereby was intimately involved in the affairs of this mortal world. This concept was referred to as realismThe predominate metaphysical position held by most theologians and philosophers during the Middle Ages that universals are real and not just an abstract idea in the human mind in contrast to nominalism that was introduced near the start of the... more due to the idea that these “spiritual” forms were more real than the physical realm, and this formed the basis for a strong belief in God’s providenceThe word derived from the Latin word for “provide” and “foresee” that identifies the Medieval doctrine of God’s active benevolent sovereignty over all things and events in his creation, despite any appearance to the contrary. The universal belief in God’s... more that permeated Christendom throughout the Middle Ages, echoing even to this day.

Plato believed that intelligence is not a form or substance but a class of eternal essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more all its own. Human intellect always existed and is the essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more of being human. Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more endeavored to prove human pre-existence by pointing out that we all know things which we did not learn during this life, so we must be remembering things that we previously knew. He subscribed to Socrates’ description of himself as a midwife, helping others to give birth to ideas that were already inside them. Humans fall from heaven when they become imprisoned in their physical bodies and desire to return back where they belong. In this mortal state we are influenced by three primal forces: our intellect centered in our head, our emotions centered in our chest, and our appetites found in our gut and loins. These two mortal forces, appetites and passions, interfere with our intellect and throw our eternal essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more out of balance, so it is imperative to learn how to use one’s intellect to control his appetites and passions.

Everything was created for a purpose, and fulfillment comes from realizing that objective. Happiness is the ultimate goal for humans. But this concept entails much more than what our modern conception of happiness implies. The Greeks did not believe it meant living a hedonistic lifestyle, but instead it meant true fulfillment, realizing our full potential, reaching our destiny. They used the term telos, from which the term theology is derived, to encapsulate this concept of the consummation of our ultimate purpose. Human happiness comes from realizing our divine destiny to return to our pre-mortal state of harmony and unity with intelligence. Evil is disharmony, so living an orderly life through reason is the goal for a truly successful life.

Plato introduced the idea of eternity–beyond time–to Greek philosophy. This concept plays an important role in subsequent philosophy and Christian theology. Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more believed that various things are eternal while others are created. Created things change, deteriorate, and cease to exist. They are not eternal. However, God is eternal, and consequently is both perfect and unchangeable because one can’t change perfectionIn Christian theology it refers to the Protestant (chiefly Methodist) doctrine and the Holiness tradition that entire sanctification (Holiness and perfection) is not only possible but standard for believers. more. Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more held that this material world is good because it was created after a prefect model, but it has flaws that were created by other cooperating lesser gods in the creative process. Neo-Platonists took this concept even further to hold that this material world is not of divine origin but is evil. This concept greatly influenced early Christian Gnostics and even the Christian creeds. Renowned historian, Will Durant, wrote in his distinguished work, The Story of PhilosophyDerived from the Greek term “philosophia”, the term literally means “love of wisdom”. Philosophy usually involves questioning, critical discussion, and rational argument. Greek philosophy laid the intellectual groundwork for Christian theology, and the concerns of the two areas of inquiry... more:

Much of the politics of Catholicism was derived from Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more … the ideas of heaven, purgatoryIs the place in Roman Catholic theology where those who die in a state of grace, but not yet clean from the stain of sin, suffer temporal punishment in a purification process. more, and hell, in their medieval form, are traceable to the last book of the Republic; the cosmology of scholasticismRefers to the rational approach to theology that dominated Roman Catholic ideas in the High and Late Middle Ages that developed in the universities in contrast with the more devotional form of theology found in the monasteries during the early... more comes largely from the Timaeus; the doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of realismThe predominate metaphysical position held by most theologians and philosophers during the Middle Ages that universals are real and not just an abstract idea in the human mind in contrast to nominalism that was introduced near the start of the... more (the objective reality of general ideas) was an interpretation of the doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of Ideas.

Plato’s influence on philosophy, Greco-Roman culture and Christian theology can hardly be overstated.[g/lossary]2

Aristotle

[glossary]AristotleAristotle (384–322 B.C.) was a greek philosopher, founder of the sciences of logic, physics, and biology, whose writings were a major conceptual resource for medieval scholastic theologians, especially Aquinas. He studied under Plato, and in turn educated Alexander the Great.... more (385–323 B.C.) was one of Plato’s star pupils and built his philosophy on much that Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more taught, but diverged from him in various ways. One of Aristotle’s greatest contributions was his creation of logic as a science. He developed formulas to test and correct ideas and propositions. He determined that correct thinking can be distilled down to universal rules like math and physics, and can then be taught to any normal personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more. His work became the foundation of medieval scholasticismRefers to the rational approach to theology that dominated Roman Catholic ideas in the High and Late Middle Ages that developed in the universities in contrast with the more devotional form of theology found in the monasteries during the early... more, which we will discuss later. Based on his approach to logic, AristotleAristotle (384–322 B.C.) was a greek philosopher, founder of the sciences of logic, physics, and biology, whose writings were a major conceptual resource for medieval scholastic theologians, especially Aquinas. He studied under Plato, and in turn educated Alexander the Great.... more finds Plato’s teaching that universal concepts are a reality to be nonsensical. He propounds a more tangible hands-on philosophy.

Ernest Renan states, “Socrates(470–399 B.C.). Socrates is credited with being the father of philosophy because he taught that the individual must begin by first examining himself. He challenged many assumptions and insisted on defining terms at the beginning of a debate in order... more gave philosophy to mankind, and AristotleAristotle (384–322 B.C.) was a greek philosopher, founder of the sciences of logic, physics, and biology, whose writings were a major conceptual resource for medieval scholastic theologians, especially Aquinas. He studied under Plato, and in turn educated Alexander the Great.... more gave it science.”ⁱ AristotleAristotle (384–322 B.C.) was a greek philosopher, founder of the sciences of logic, physics, and biology, whose writings were a major conceptual resource for medieval scholastic theologians, especially Aquinas. He studied under Plato, and in turn educated Alexander the Great.... more was quite the naturalist. Beyond his own efforts, it is said that at any given time he would have 1000 students scouring the known world, collecting specimens of flora and fauna. He meticulously listed, analyzed and categorized each species in groups of ascending general attributes. Aristotle’s work remained the foundation of science until the EnlightenmentA broad term for 18th century European intellectual developments, including deism and other movements critical of orthodox Christianity, that are characteristically modern, emphasizing reason against tradition and authority. Refers to the period of intellectual and cultural development in Europe and... more, nearly two thousand years later.

Many of Aristotle’s philosophical ideas spring from his biology. He concluded that development is not accidental or haphazard. Everything is guided by an inner urge to become something greater than it is. A bird’s egg internally is designed to produce the same type of bird and not a snake. It is not a divine craftsman that instills this purposeful existence in creation but nature itself, which each organism inherits from its parent. Unlike Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more, AristotleAristotle (384–322 B.C.) was a greek philosopher, founder of the sciences of logic, physics, and biology, whose writings were a major conceptual resource for medieval scholastic theologians, especially Aquinas. He studied under Plato, and in turn educated Alexander the Great.... more believed that the form or essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more of an item was contained in the object itself and was not some abstract idea. He concluded that the form or essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more of an object is the characteristic of an object, and matter is what it is made of. So, the form of a chair consists of a seat with a base or legs and a back, but the matter it is made of is wood or some other type of matter. Thus, form and matter are unified to produce a material object without the direct aid of a hands-on transcendent causal agent. Aristotle’s concept of form and matter was integral in the development of the concept of transubstantiationRoman Catholic doctrine, developed in the 13th century, that the bread and wine literally changes to become the literal body and blood of Christ when the priest pronounces consecration of these elements during the Mass. Protestants reject the dogma of... more of the bread and wine of the Eucharist more, which we will discuss in depth later.

AristotleAristotle (384–322 B.C.) was a greek philosopher, founder of the sciences of logic, physics, and biology, whose writings were a major conceptual resource for medieval scholastic theologians, especially Aquinas. He studied under Plato, and in turn educated Alexander the Great.... more found that even though nature internally contains its design, there still must be a god that initiated the process of movement to bring about creation. Matter may be eternal, but it still needed some force to set things in motion to create the universe. To Aristotle, this force is an eternal, perfect, immaterial, unchanging god. He is pure energy, more akin to a magnetic force than a personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more. AristotleAristotle (384–322 B.C.) was a greek philosopher, founder of the sciences of logic, physics, and biology, whose writings were a major conceptual resource for medieval scholastic theologians, especially Aquinas. He studied under Plato, and in turn educated Alexander the Great.... more says that God is this “prime mover unmoved.” He is the first cause of all things, yet after setting everything in motion he does nothing because he is perfect and not affected by any outside stimuli. Will Durant describes it well: “Aristotle’s God never does anything; he has no desires, no will, no purpose; he is activity so pure that he never acts. He is absolutely perfect; therefore he cannot desire anything; therefore he does nothing. His only occupation is to contemplate the essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more of things; and since he himself is the essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more of all things, the form of all forms, his sole employment is the contemplation of himself.”ⁱⁱ   This concept was instrumental in the formation of the creeds declaring that God is without body, parts or passionIn ancient Greek and Roman philosophy this term refers to both feelings and suffering because our superior rational mind suffers from being moved by emotion. Accordingly, passions were viewed as a vice and weakness. Accordingly, ancient moralist viewed passion as... more.

In spite of all his contributions to the development of logic and science, he realized that the greatest question of all was what is the purpose of life? Like Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more, he concluded it was to find happiness through fulfillment of our eternal destiny. AristotleAristotle (384–322 B.C.) was a greek philosopher, founder of the sciences of logic, physics, and biology, whose writings were a major conceptual resource for medieval scholastic theologians, especially Aquinas. He studied under Plato, and in turn educated Alexander the Great.... more taught that humans realize fulfillment by developing the unique human characteristic of a rational mind.

Our rational mind is eternal, while our physical body is temporalIs a technical term used in theology referring to this mortal physical existence in time as opposed to eternal divine existence outside of time. more. Rational thinking leads to a life of moderation. He called this the golden mean or middle way between two extremes. We develop virtue by obtaining knowledge and experience to enable us to better live a life of moderation. Virtues are formed through our actions. They are habits, not simply single isolated acts. Humans realize their divine potential and find happiness through a concerted effort to learn wisdom by living a rational life of moderation. Aristotle’s teaching that we can acquire and develop virtues through practice greatly influenced medieval scholastic theology and Catholic practices that Protestants rejected.

Alexander the Great

Approximately 350 years before Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more was born, Alexander the Great’s father, Philip, united all the various Greek states under his rule. He then hired the most renowned thinker in Greece, AristotleAristotle (384–322 B.C.) was a greek philosopher, founder of the sciences of logic, physics, and biology, whose writings were a major conceptual resource for medieval scholastic theologians, especially Aquinas. He studied under Plato, and in turn educated Alexander the Great.... more, to train his thirteen-year-old son, Alexander. AristotleAristotle (384–322 B.C.) was a greek philosopher, founder of the sciences of logic, physics, and biology, whose writings were a major conceptual resource for medieval scholastic theologians, especially Aquinas. He studied under Plato, and in turn educated Alexander the Great.... more likely instilled in Alexander a vision of extending the benefits of classic Greek wisdom and culture to the whole world. At a very young age, Alexander conquered the Mediterranean world as far east as India and made a concerted effort to assimilate each nation into his Greek civilization. His dream was to create a Panhellenic world where there would no longer be Greeks and Barbarians. He encouraged his soldiers to intermarry, and he established institutions like the gymnasium to infuse Greek culture into the conquered societies. He assimilated the religions of the conquered people by asserting that all the gods were the same; they were merely called by different names by different societies.

Alexander established a great city bearing his name in Egypt at the mouth of the Nile that became a great center of learning. Here Platonist philosophers, especially the StoicsA respected and popular school of ancient philosophy that taught that living by reason without passions was the path to wisdom, happiness and fulfillment and served as one of the most widely accepted forms of moralism in the Greco-Roman world.... more, promoted an allegorical interpretation of Classic Greek literature, which approach was then applied to Jewish and Christian scriptures. The dispute between the Alexandrian allegorical approach and the AntiochA large and important city in Syria and the meeting point of the East and West. more literal approach to interpreting scripture became a central issue in Christian doctrinal disputes that prompted and shaped the creeds. Greek became the universal language throughout the conquered world. With all this, Greece left its imprint on the Mediterranean world for nearly two thousand years.

The impact of Alexander the GreatAlexander the Great (356–323 B.C.) was King of Macedon and went on to create one of the largest empires of the ancient world by the time he was thirty, extending from Greece to northwest India. He was undefeated in battle... more on Christianity is greater than most persons realize. Some scholars argue that he is the source of the myth of Jesus’ divinity, while others see in Alexander a type or precursor for Christ. Regardless, at a minimum, he provided a bridge between the monotheistic culture of the Jews and the quasi-polytheistic doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of Christianity (trinity) facilitating the conversionThis term is derived from the Latin word for “turning,” and is a theological term that refers to one turning his will from evil to good and is generally used to denote one becoming a Christian and/or joining a particular... more of Jews and GentilesAn ancient term referring to people who are not Jews or otherwise descended from the house of Israel. In Christianity, over time, it also came to be used to refer to non-Christians. more to Christianity.

There are a number of parallels between Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more and Alexander. They both died when they were 33 years old. They both claimed divine sonship and dual paternity (Zeus for Alexander) and as human beings with flesh and blood they broke the barrier between humanity and the divine. Virgin births are attributed to both and world rule were their destiny, yet they both died before they fully realized their missions to bless all humanity. The popular ancient myths surrounding Alexander certainly contributed to the acceptance of the Christian message, even if its influence was subliminal.5

Reason, Oracles and Mystery Cults

Aristotle’s teaching that virtue is realized through an active life of moderation complemented Socrates’ teaching that virtue is obtained with knowledge and Plato’s quest for harmony. These concepts formed the foundation of the Greco-Roman culture that valued reason practically more than anything else. Numerous philosophical schools developed over time, with varying degrees of acceptance. Three that had the greatest impact on lasting Christian ideas and practices were the StoicsA respected and popular school of ancient philosophy that taught that living by reason without passions was the path to wisdom, happiness and fulfillment and served as one of the most widely accepted forms of moralism in the Greco-Roman world.... more, the Pythagoreans and the Epicureansrefers to followers of the philosophy founded by Epicurus that was popular at the time of Christ and the early Church. It’s central concept was tranquility achieved through escape from fear, pain and struggle, and later became associated with hedonism.... more. The StoicsA respected and popular school of ancient philosophy that taught that living by reason without passions was the path to wisdom, happiness and fulfillment and served as one of the most widely accepted forms of moralism in the Greco-Roman world.... more were the most influential moral philosophers in the ancient world. They taught that a virtuous life was obtained through living a life of reason without passions. They viewed passions as a corrupting outside influence that moves people. Hence, the term motion is contained in the word emotion. The most wise and virtuous personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more has no passions. Many early Christians adopted this idea which contributed to the claim in the Christian creeds that God does not have any emotions, including loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more, compassion or anger. The StoicsA respected and popular school of ancient philosophy that taught that living by reason without passions was the path to wisdom, happiness and fulfillment and served as one of the most widely accepted forms of moralism in the Greco-Roman world.... more were materialists and believed that God and our soul were literally made out of hot air and divine eternal light. Some early Christians concurred with the StoicsA respected and popular school of ancient philosophy that taught that living by reason without passions was the path to wisdom, happiness and fulfillment and served as one of the most widely accepted forms of moralism in the Greco-Roman world.... more and believed that God did have a material existence, while subsequent theologians rejected this idea.

The Pythagorean and Epicurean philosophy schools formed organized communal centers where moral standards were taught and followers lived an acetic lifestyle. Ironically, these tight communities provided a rough model followed by Jewish separatist groups such as the Essenes–the group that wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls–and subsequently by monks and nuns in Christian monastic orders. Both sprang into existence in a large measure as a reaction to increased Hellenization of Judaism and subsequently of Christianity. The emphasize of these Greek schools on an ascetic lifestyle has had a major impact on Christian beliefs, doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more and practices throughout the ages.

Female oracles played a major role in Hellenist society and in the creation of monasticism in Christianity. An oracle was a personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more who spoke on behalf of a god and was the source of wisdom and prophetic utterances. The word actually means “one who speaks.” The Oracle of Delphi was the most popular and influential oracle in ancient Greece, with hordes of people including wealthy citizens and rulers flocking to seek guidance from her and her assistants. Pilgrimages to various oracles were a regular aspect of the Hellenistic world. This traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more continued in Christendom with hermits, renowned monks and relics replacing the oracles as sources of wisdom and healing.

The ancient Greek mystery cults also influenced early Christianity, particularly the heresies associated with Gnosticismis a broad label covering a wide range of non-orthodox forms of Christianity which proliferated in the early Church that devalued the material world and emphasized the need to acquire special knowledge to escape to a higher spiritual realm. The... more. A central element of these mystery schools was the secrecy associated with their initiation rites, their ritual practices, and with the hidden knowledge associated with these rituals. In the second century CE, Justin Martyr(c.A.D 100–165) Born in Palestine early in the 2nd century, Justin was educated as a philosopher and converted to Christianity, retaining many of his Platonist convictions. He wrote an important Apology (meaning a defense of Christianity against the pagans) and... more asserted that these cults were “demonic imitations” of the true faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more, God’s covenant, rituals, and doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more that God gave to Moses(Died c. 1400 B.C.) Moses was a Hebrew prophet who led his people out of slavery in Egypt. He instituted the Mosaic Law consisting of both ritual and moral elements. Many Christians believe that this law is part of God’s... more. Scholars assert that this elevation of mystery played a role in the development of the sacraments in Christianity. Bishops subsequently utilized mystery as the means to explain the inconsistencies involving the TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more and the incarnation of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more.6

Stoicism

Stoicism acted as the glue that fused religion and philosophy during the late republic and imperial periods. Rome’s formalistic paganism failed to satisfy widespread yearning for meaning in the changing materialist world, so people turned to philosophy, which, in many respects, was more spiritual. Romans in general and StoicsA respected and popular school of ancient philosophy that taught that living by reason without passions was the path to wisdom, happiness and fulfillment and served as one of the most widely accepted forms of moralism in the Greco-Roman world.... more in particular were attracted to Plato’s concept of a unified cosmosthe idea that the universe is one harmonious and orderly system. more where the human soul was part of and shared the divinity of the universal essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more of eternity. This joined nicely with the ancient Roman concept of individual and collective genius. It infusedA term used in Catholic theology that is derived from the Latin word for “poured in” referring to the grace (love) of God that he pours into our hearts through the Holy Spirit (see Romans 5:5). This term is used... more greater moral application into their religion as StoicsA respected and popular school of ancient philosophy that taught that living by reason without passions was the path to wisdom, happiness and fulfillment and served as one of the most widely accepted forms of moralism in the Greco-Roman world.... more stressed that all men are brothers and should be treated accordingly, which appealed to the cultural but not necessarily the religious value of honor. Yet Stoicism had a strong deterministic perspective that comfortably fit into the Roman belief in fate and fortune, as reflected in their religion’s emphasis on omens, augury and patronage. Stoicism and other philosophical ideas regarding the afterlife provided greater comfort and hope than their traditional religion’s vague beliefs and fear of ghosts.7

Plotinus and Neoplatonism’s Marriage with Christianity

In the third century CE, the Roman philosopher PlotinusPlotinus (c. A.D. 204–270) was a philosopher born in Egypt under the Roman Empire. Plotinus followed the Platonic tradition, but adapted it with distinctly mystical or religious elements. In this form, it took on many similarities with Indian philosophy, but... more integrated Plato’s spirituality with various Aristotelian themes to create a cohesive worldview we refer to as Neoplatonism or classic PlatonismThe philosophy of Plato and other systems derived therefrom. Platonism generally asserted the existence of abstract objects, or “forms”, which were thought to exist in a realm other than the physical world of external physical objects or the internal world... more, which influenced Christianity more than any other historical traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more.

PlotinusPlotinus (c. A.D. 204–270) was a philosopher born in Egypt under the Roman Empire. Plotinus followed the Platonic tradition, but adapted it with distinctly mystical or religious elements. In this form, it took on many similarities with Indian philosophy, but... more took Aristotle’s ideas of the ultimate Divine Mind, with love’s power of attraction, and applied them to Plato’s concepts of the Good, the world of intelligible forms, the immortal soul, and the physical world, to articulate a very spiritual view of existence. It consisted of four levels, like a pyramid. It was also frequently described as three concentric circles or globes surrounding a single point, representing the Good or the One, which is eternal and unchanging and above being itself. The One has no parts and is above essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more, yet it is the source of all existence. Everything emanates from it: all light, intelligence, even being itself. It is being itself. We have being because we participate in its eternal being. The One is beyond understanding, yet it is intelligence itself. It is the source of the forms in the intelligible world or the next level, referred to as the Divine Mind.

Plotinus’s Divine Mind does not consist of our individual minds, but is akin to Aristotle’s concept of a Divine Mind that is eternal, unchanging, and encompasses all truth, and which just contemplates itself. It is not a personality, but intelligence. It is different from the higher level of The One or The Good, which is simple, meaning without parts. The Divine Mind contains an intellectual universe of forms, which are perfect concepts of a material world with shapes, size, and boundaries. These forms are eternal and cannot change because they are perfect.

Below the Divine Mind is an eternal universal soul which is like the forms, but it is changeable. It is intelligence which can see the forms (like a triangle, a horse, a house, etc.) which are in the Divine Mind. This Divine Soul is an intermediary between our material world and the intelligible world of the forms. Plotinus’s concept of the soul does not consist of myriad individual souls but one soul with parts. Everyone and everything has a soul that is part of the universal soul of our material world or temporalIs a technical term used in theology referring to this mortal physical existence in time as opposed to eternal divine existence outside of time. more existence. This universal soul is the source of life and a link between the Divine Mind and the bottom level of the physical universe. The soul feels and can grow or degrade.

Individuals have fallen from the perfect world of forms to this temporalIs a technical term used in theology referring to this mortal physical existence in time as opposed to eternal divine existence outside of time. more existence where everything is in constant turmoil and change. Things die and degrade in this chaotic physical world. Each level, from the low visible temporalIs a technical term used in theology referring to this mortal physical existence in time as opposed to eternal divine existence outside of time. more world up to the One, increases in goodness and light until one reaches the Good, which is above everything because it is the source of everything.

The spirituality of Plotinus’s worldview resonated with the public largely because he said everything longs for unity with that which is above it, to belong with its source of existence. We are attracted to a higher, more orderly level of existence. Our loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more for justice and order lifts us to a higher plane, and we can experience increased levels of joy as we realize increased levels of unity with the Divine Mind and, ultimately, the Good. He taught that this objective is everyone’s innate subconscious quest. Unfortunately, we get distracted by the enticing lure of the lusts and appetites of our physical bodies. But true happiness is found where we belong, back in the eternal world of the forms in unity with the divine essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more that is up in the orderly heavens. We need to discipline ourselves by controlling our passions and getting in touch with the divine part of our souls that seeks truth, justice, beauty, and goodness. Our true joy increases as we discover our true divine identity and experience the ecstasy of union with the Good.8

It is easy to see why this metaphysical worldview resonated with early Christians. To a great degree, it eventually supplanted much of the earlier biblical doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of Christianity, such as the current idea of immortal souls escaping their physical bodies when we die to either go up to heaven or down to hell, instead of the biblical belief of deceased persons anxiously waiting for the resurrectionThe doctrine that Jesus’ spiritual essence was reunited with his physical body and that other humans will likewise live again with their spirit or soul reunited with their material body. This term does not refer to the doctrine of the... more to receive their physical bodies and return to a glorified material earth.9 The greatest impact Neoplatonism had on Christianity was on its understanding of deity, which we will explore in a later chapter on the TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more.

All these influences led to an influx of acceptable speculation that mixed religion, philosophy, and mysticismIs a form of religious experience that is found in one form or another in nearly all religious traditions. In early Christianity, Pseudo Dionysius referred to it as “mystical theology” because it referred to aspects of an incomprehensible God that... more with Christianity.

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The Grecco-Roman World

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