Constantine and Third-Century Christianity

Emperor Constantine changed Christianity. But it is as pointless to say that one person changed Christianity as it is to say one thread of an intricate tapestry defines it.

Conquest was the key to Rome’s prosperity and greatness. The spoils of war filled its treasury and provided more slaves to produce great infrastructure, architecture, and commodities. For example, the treasures and slaves that Titus brought back to Rome after quelling the Jewish uprising and destroying Jerusalem were largely used to build the great Colosseum in Rome. This all changed in the third century.

Rome met its match with the Sassanid Empire(A.D. 224) The rebellion which overthrew the Parthian Empire establishes the Sassanid Empire which quickly expands to fill the territorial space of the Parthian Empire and to compete in turn with the Roman Empire to the west. more that was expanding on Rome’s eastern border. When Emperor Severus took his armies out east in 235 CE to recapture lands that had been lost, he and the empire were shocked when he was soundly defeated. He was then assassinated by his own people, leading to a period of Roman civil wars when the army tried to reassert the dominance of the Empire by installing their generals as emperors, replacing the former hereditary monarchy system. Instability replaced the order and security Rome had become accustomed to for centuries. In the three years after Severus’s assassination, Rome had six emperors: each was murdered and replaced by another general.

Odaenathus, a wealthy merchant out east, became upset with the Roman legions’ inability to handle the Sassanian advance, so he convinced the troops to follow him, and they recaptured a large part of fallen territory. He and his wife, Queen Zenobia, then set up their own kingdom independent of Rome. In 260, Postumus, the Roman governor over the area of modern France and Germany, followed suit and set himself up as the emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more of this territory, splitting the Roman Empire(27 B.C.) After a period of unrest and competing generals jockeying for power, Octavian, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, becomes the first official Emperor of Rome, being known as Augustus. Octavian’s rule initiated an approximately 200 year period of... more into three separate kingdoms. This weakness encouraged the barbarian GermanicReferring to an Indo-European ethnic group of people originating in northern Europe. The Roman Empire bordered on Germanic lands for centuries and the two groups of people frequently fought each other. As the Roman Empire weakened, Germanic tribes migrated further... more tribes known as the FranksA collection of Germanic tribes originating near the frontiers of the Roman Empire, which coalesced and eventually came to dominate Western Europe as the Western Roman Empire receded. more, Goths, and Vandals to attack as well. The Roman army kept promoting generals to emperors in a desperate attempt to counteract this collapse.

These military emperors in turn tried to reestablish a sense of Roman unity by reasserting their old pagan religion. The aristocratic class had long ago lost faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more in these superstitious ideas, but the soldiers who faced death on a regular basis remained quite loyal to their traditional beliefs. Their gods required regular offerings as evidence of the community’s devotion. If everyone did not participate, then that god would be offended and punish the whole community. Consequently, participation in the public sacrifices was a civic duty that Christians refused to perform. This led to the persecution of Christians as enemies of the state.1

A major persecution began in 250 when Emperor Decius issued a decree requiring all adults in the empire to participate in public sacrifice or an offering of incense to the gods as a testament of their allegiance to the emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more. Everyone who participated received a written certificate confirming their compliance while those who refused were imprisoned, tortured, and executed. Over three thousand Christians chose martyrdom while others fled to hide in the countryside. Some bribed local magistrates in order to purchase the certificates without actually performing this pagan offering. Additionally, bishops were ordered to turn over scarce copies of the holy-writ that had been entrusted to them for safekeeping. Some complied under threat of death while others preferred the fate of a martyr. Even though this persecution was intense, it did not last long.

Less than a decade later, Emperor Valerian thought that eliminating the Christian leadership would be the best way to stop the growing Christian movement that Decius was unable to destroy. In 258, he ordered that all bishops be executed, all Christian senators and citizens be stripped of their property.  In addition, Christian civil officials who would not offer incense to the gods would be made slaves. Again, some bishops went into hiding while others, like Cyprian(A.D. 210–14 Sep 258) Bishop of Carthage between 248 and 258 who sparked a controversy when he fled during the Emperor Decian persecution and then later returned to assume his post. Several persons opposed him retaining his position because they... more, the respected bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more of Carthage, chose death. Upon hearing his death sentence, Cyprian(A.D. 210–14 Sep 258) Bishop of Carthage between 248 and 258 who sparked a controversy when he fled during the Emperor Decian persecution and then later returned to assume his post. Several persons opposed him retaining his position because they... more followed the examples of earlier martyrs and responded, “Thanks be to God,” immediately before he was beheaded. Valerian’s edict was rescinded two years later when his son became the emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more.

The last and by far the most intense persecution occurred from 303 to 312 under the reign of Emperor DiocletianDiocletian (A.D. 244–311) was a Roman Emperor who successfully stabilized the Roman Empire after nearly collapsing after a period of invasion, civil war, plague, and economic depression. Diocletian also led the last, largest, and bloodiest persecution of Christianity in the... more. His relentless efforts were largely successful. Inscriptions from that time honor him “for having everywhere abolished the superstition of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more” and extinguishing the name of Christians.2

With the exception of Gaul, streams of Christian blood flowed through the provinces of the Roman Empire(27 B.C.) After a period of unrest and competing generals jockeying for power, Octavian, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, becomes the first official Emperor of Rome, being known as Augustus. Octavian’s rule initiated an approximately 200 year period of... more. Everywhere the Christian temples lay in ruin, and the assemblies of worship were suspended. A large segment of the Christians had forsaken the provinces and had taken refuge among the barbarians. Such as were unwilling or unable to do this, kept themselves concealed, and were afraid for their lives if they appeared in public. The ministers of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more were either slain, or mutilated and sent to the mines, or banished from the country. The avaricious magistrates had seized upon nearly all their church property and their private possessions. Many through dread of undergoing torture, made away with their own lives and many apostatized from the faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more; and what remained of the Christian community consisted of weak, poor and timorous persons.3

DiocletianDiocletian (A.D. 244–311) was a Roman Emperor who successfully stabilized the Roman Empire after nearly collapsing after a period of invasion, civil war, plague, and economic depression. Diocletian also led the last, largest, and bloodiest persecution of Christianity in the... more was made emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more in 284 because of his military prowess and personal charisma. He ruled with an iron fist, stabilized the economyderived from the Greek term, oikonomia, for “steward” or “household management,” is a term used to describe a plan of salvation through Christ and is not to be confused with the current usage of this word.. In Eastern Orthodox theology,... more, and finally restored strength, unity, and stability to the empire. DiocletianDiocletian (A.D. 244–311) was a Roman Emperor who successfully stabilized the Roman Empire after nearly collapsing after a period of invasion, civil war, plague, and economic depression. Diocletian also led the last, largest, and bloodiest persecution of Christianity in the... more realized that the empire was too large to be effectively governed by one individual, so he devised a brilliant solution. He split the empire in two, east and west, each with its own emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more, referred to as an Augustus, and a sub-emperor in training, referred to as a Caesar, thus creating a college of four emperors, all interconnected through marriage. It appeared that this innovative approach would ensure a smooth transition into the foreseeable future. However, it quickly fell apart. In 305, DiocletianDiocletian (A.D. 244–311) was a Roman Emperor who successfully stabilized the Roman Empire after nearly collapsing after a period of invasion, civil war, plague, and economic depression. Diocletian also led the last, largest, and bloodiest persecution of Christianity in the... more was in bad health and decided to retire. He convinced his co-head emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more to step down at the same time so their two sub-emperors could simultaneously assume control and appoint their own new sub-emperors.

A snag occurred when the new emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more of the eastern part of the empire passed over his own son to be his successor in training and chose his nephew instead. He then imposed on the new western emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more, Constantine’s father, to do the same, who then chose Maxentius besides ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more. This upset the army, and when Constantine’s father died a few months later, his troops declared ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more the rightful emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more. Maxentius, who by then had been appointed the successor emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more for the west, refused to step down, resulting in military conflict between ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more and both Maxentius and his ally, the emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more of the eastern portion of the empire.

ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more defeated Maxentius at the renowned Battle of Milvian BridgeConstantine defeated Maxentius at the renowned Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312 to become the disputed emperor of Rome. Three years later, he defeated his rivals in the eastern half of the empire. Constantine purportedly had a dream or vision... more in 312. Three years later, he defeated his rivals in the eastern half of the empire. ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more purportedly had a dream or vision the night before the Battle of Milvian BridgeConstantine defeated Maxentius at the renowned Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312 to become the disputed emperor of Rome. Three years later, he defeated his rivals in the eastern half of the empire. Constantine purportedly had a dream or vision... more in which Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more appeared to him and told him that if he put the first two letters of the title ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more (Cairo in Greek) on his banners, he would win the battle. Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more purportedly said, “By this sign, thou shalt conquer.” After this victory, ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more issued the Edict of Milan(A.D. 313) Emperor Constantine I and Emperor Licinius issued the Edict of Milan which expanded on the Edict of Toleration (Edict of Serdica) and granted religious liberty to Christians specifically, but also to all religions in the Roman Empire. more granting religious freedom throughout the empire, restoring the seized property to the Christian bishops, and conferring the same privileged status on them as held by pagan priests. Later, he granted favored status to Christianity, converted pagan temples into cathedrals, extended his role as head of the pagan Roman religion to become the de facto central authority of the Christian religion in his Empire, and declared himself the bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more of the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more over external affairs.  He also became a catechumen (a personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more in training for baptismFrom a Greek word meaning “to immerse;” and is an initiatory ritual washing whereby one becomes a member of the Christian community. It involves various symbolic meanings including, cleansing, the death and resurrection of Christ, and a sinners death and... more), built ConstantinopleWas established in A.D. 324 by Emperor Constantine as the Eastern capital of the Roman Empire. The city was built over the much smaller ancient city of Byzantium from which the Byzantium empire is named. After the fall of Rome... more as a Christian city and his new capital, and was eventually baptized shortly before his death.

There is great ongoing debate regarding the veracity of Constantine’s purported vision. Many find it hard to believe because Constantine’s personal life mirrored that of HerodHerod Antipater (c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 39) ruled over Galilee and Perea, the regions of Judea where Jesus was most active in his ministry. Herod imprisoned John the Baptist out of fear of rebellion due to John’s public disapproval of Herod’s... more the Great. They both murdered their wives and their sons and butchered large numbers of their advisors; for ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more, these events occurred after he purportedly had converted to Christianity. Additionally, this version of his victory was first recorded decades later by an historian who was obviously writing to please ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more and put him in a good light; this same historian had omitted this detail in his earlier accounts of the battle. However, the Bible records stories of God giving tyrants dreams, i.e., Pharaoh and Nebuchadnezzar. We also have Roman coins from Constantine’s early reign depicting these letters on his banner, so this portion of the story likely occurred. This detail is important because the military carried banners bearing the image of their gods into battle. Some historians feel that ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more added this insignia to gain obtain Christian support to gain an advantage in the battle, which is very unlikely.

Roman emperors often used their military victories as proof of their divine right to rule, so ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more may simply have been adding a new twist to this old traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more. Others think that ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more simply saw the resilience of Christianity throughout the whole multicultural empire and thought it was the rising tide that could unify his rule and replace the superstitious traditions from its various regions which many people no longer believed. In the ancient world, religion and the state were thoroughly integrated because rulers saw religion as an essential element needed to unify their society and solidify their reign.4

We know that ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more looked favorably on Christianity, even if he was not fully converted. As a soldier, he may have simply admired the bravery and dedication of the martyrs. Most historians believe that a source of Constantine’s favorable opinion regarding Christianity was his mother, who was a Christian5, and his father, who refused to enforce Diocletian’s anti-Christian edicts in Gaul, where he ruled. Regardless, ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more continued to use pagan images on coins, directed people to construct a pagan temple to worship Constantine’s ancestors, and generally demonstrated a mixed approach to religion. In reality, the truth is probably a combination of all of the above. ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more may have been inspired by an impression or a dream that he later embellished. He probably hoped that Christianity would help him unify his empire. He probably was intrigued by Christian teachings and practices and believed some if not most of them. But, above all, he was the emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more, and reinforcing that position of authority was what really mattered.

After his conquest, ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more effectively imposed his role as Pontifex Maximus—the chief high priest of Rome’s pagan religion—onto Christianity. He became Christianity’s de facto central authority and organized the church to coincide with his civil government at all levels.

The Roman Empire(27 B.C.) After a period of unrest and competing generals jockeying for power, Octavian, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, becomes the first official Emperor of Rome, being known as Augustus. Octavian’s rule initiated an approximately 200 year period of... more was divided into four prefectures, containing thirteen dioceses, embracing one hundred and fourteen providences. Officers called praetorian prefects presided over the four prefectures, exarchs over the dioceses, and governors over the provinces. The bishops of Rome, ConstantinopleWas established in A.D. 324 by Emperor Constantine as the Eastern capital of the Roman Empire. The city was built over the much smaller ancient city of Byzantium from which the Byzantium empire is named. After the fall of Rome... more, AntiochA large and important city in Syria and the meeting point of the East and West. more and Alexandria, having gained pre-eminence over all other metropolitans were made to correspond with the four prefectures by ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more, and assumed, before the end of the [fourth] century, the title of Patriarchs.6

For centuries, these four centers of power vied for dominance, ultimately leading to the east-west split of the Christian church in 1054 CE.

Fractured is the distinguishing characteristic of third-century Christianity. It is clear to any serious unbiased student of Christian history that there was no centralized authority in the Christian religion after the death of the apostles until ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more. The influence of the various forms of Gnosticismis a broad label covering a wide range of non-orthodox forms of Christianity which proliferated in the early Church that devalued the material world and emphasized the need to acquire special knowledge to escape to a higher spiritual realm. The... more that were intertwined with the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more had grown, creating spinoff groups. This prompted Irenaeus(c. A.D. 120–200) Bishop of Lyon, the most important Christian theologian of the 2nd century; author of a large work, Against Heresies. more and other bishops and theologians to write treatises against heresies. The authority of the church rested with regional leaders creating differences in practices and beliefs throughout the church. Yet it continued to grow at an unprecedented rate during long periods of tolerance that were broken by short periods of intense persecution.7

Scholars estimate that in the year 150 CE, there were approximately 40,000 Christians in the entire Roman Empire(27 B.C.) After a period of unrest and competing generals jockeying for power, Octavian, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, becomes the first official Emperor of Rome, being known as Augustus. Octavian’s rule initiated an approximately 200 year period of... more, which had a population of roughly 60 million. At that time, the population of Rome itself, where the highest concentration of Christians lived, was around one million. The Christian population throughout the empire grew at a rapid rate: about 40 percent a decade, from about 1,000 Christians in the year 40 to about 7,500 in 100 CE; 200,0000 in 200 CE; 1,200,000 in 250 CE (2 percent of the population); 6,000,000 in 300 CE; to 33,000,000 in 350 CE, which was slightly over half the empire shortly after Constantine’s death.8

During the greater part of [the second] century, all the churches continued to be, as it was at first, independent of each other. . . . Each church was a kind of small republic governing itself by its own laws, enacted by or at least sanctioned by the people.9

Clement, the second or third bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more of Rome, wrote an epistle to the Corinthian church from which we learn that successor bishops were chosen from a local council of elders and were then sustained by a vote of the whole congregation they would govern. This pattern began to change in the third century with regional bishops assuming the power to appoint new bishops in their area. As Christianity expanded to the villages surrounding cities, a new hierarchyComes from a Greek word that literally means “rule by priests,” and is used to identify churches with strong top down organization or episcopal polity such as the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches whereas as opposed to Baptist and... more emerged. The large-city bishops began to be referred to as metropolitans (later, archbishops) and exercised authority over the other bishops in their region.10

As Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more membership spread and questions of practice and doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more arose, bishops would often seek counsel from other bishops, typically giving greater deference to the bishops of churches which had been set up by an apostle because of their close association with the only recognized central authority, the apostles. The bishops began to meet in regional councils (synods), with varying frequency depending on the area, to discuss issues of concern. In the third century, these synods changed from forums for collaborative discussion into legislative bodies that transformed their language of exhortation in early councils into commands by the end of the century.11

As the religion grew, the status of its bishops and officials increased, creating pride, ambition, and competition among the clergyconsists of the priest, ministers and pastors of Christian churches. In the medieval church this term referred to both regular priest who were monks subject to a rule (regula) of a monastic order and secular priest who were not monks... more. The renowned historian Milner observed that it is common for authors to represent that the great decline of Christianity occurred after its external establishment under ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more. He continued:

But the evidence of history has compelled me to dissent from this view of things. In fact, we have seen that for a whole generation previous to the [Diocletian] persecution, few marks of superior piety appeared. … [Eusebius] speaks also of the ambitious spirit of many in aspiring to the offices of the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more, ill-judged and unlawful ordinations, the quarrels among confessors themselves, and the contentions excited by young demagogues in the very relics of the persecuted Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more, and the multiplied evils which their vices excited among Christians. … It was not Christianity, but the departure from it, which brought on these evils.12

During this whole [third] century, the work of God, in purity and power, had been tending to decay. The connection with philosophers was one of the principal causes. … and ambition and covetousness had in general gained ascendency in the Christian Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more.13

The historian Gibbon echoed this sentiment:

The presbytersA term derived from the Greek word presbyteroi that is found in the New Testament and usually translated as “elders.” Originally it referred to local church leadership and later to a local group of leaders under the direction and control... more aspired to the episcopal office, which every day became an object more worthy of their ambition. The bishops who contended with each other for ecclesiasticalFrom the Greek word ecclesia, meaning church or congregation and is used to refer to both separate Christian congregations and to the whole body of Christians. more pre-eminence, appeared by their conduct to claim a secular and tyrannical power in the church.14

Bishop Cyprian lamented that the periods of peace and prosperity produced laxity and corruption in the church which he felt were the true cause of their periodic persecution. He wrote:

Long peace had corrupted the discipline divinely revealed to us, the heavenly chastisement hath raised up our faith. … Each had been bent on improving his patrimony; and had forgotten what believers had done under the apostles, and what they ought always to do:—they were brooding over the arts of amassing wealth:—the pastors and the deacons each forgot their duty: works of mercy were neglected, and discipline was at its lowest ebb.—Luxury and effeminacy prevailed: meretricious arts in dress were cultivated: fraud and deceit were practiced among the brethren. … [Church leaders] railed against one another with outrageous acrimony, and conducted quarrels with determined malice:—Even many bishops, who ought to be guides and patterns to the rest, neglecting the peculiar duties of their station, gave themselves up to secular pursuits:—They deserted their places of residence and their flocks: They traveled through distant providences in quest of pleasure and gain; gave no assistance to the needy brethren; but were insatiable in their thirst for money:—They possessed estates by fraud and multiplied usury … because we had despised the Lord’s directions, we were obliged to undergo a correction of our multiplied evils and a trial of our faith by severe remedies.15

The distinguished historian Mosheim reports that in the third century, the simple Christian worship service changed, with sermons following the rules of Grecian eloquence so they

were better adapted to call forth the admiration of the rude multitude who loveIn a theological discussion “love” refers to one’s love for God and neighbor and is often referred to as “charity” or the pure love of God. It does not mean giving alms to the poor. more display, than to amend the heart. And that no folly and no senseless custom might be omitted in their public assemblies, the people were allowed to applaud their orators, as had been practiced in the forums and theaters; nay, they were instructed to applaud the preachers.16

The unbaptized and members doing penanceIs an old version of the word “repentance,” and refers to: 1) the Catholic sacrament also referred to as Confession where remorseful sinner (the “penitent”) confesses sins to a priest (the “confessor:”) who grants absolution; 2) the activities stipulated by... more were forbidden to attend during the sacrament more of the Lord’s Supper, “which practice it is well known, was derived from the pagan mysteries.”17 The belief that the bread and wine mystically transformed into the actual flesh and blood of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more became an early belief, and non-Christians warned others to avoid the weird Christians who drank human blood and ate human flesh during incestual orgies down in the catacombs where they worshipped.18

In the third century, incense began to be used as part of the Christian worship service, when just a hundred years before, it had been abhorred for being associated with idol worship.19 An influential bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more in the third century made changes because he

perceived that the ignorant and simple multitude persisted in their idolatry, on account of the sensitive pleasures and delights it afforded—he allowed them in the celebration of the holy martyrs to indulge themselves and give a loose to pleasure. . . . [H]e allowed them at the sepulchers of the martyrs on their fast days, to dance, to use sports, to indulge in conviviality, and do all things that the worshipers of idols were accustomed to do in their temples on their festival days, hoping that in the process of time, they would spontaneously come over to a more becoming and correct way of life.20

The fundamental Christian ritual, baptismFrom a Greek word meaning “to immerse;” and is an initiatory ritual washing whereby one becomes a member of the Christian community. It involves various symbolic meanings including, cleansing, the death and resurrection of Christ, and a sinners death and... more, also underwent change. Baptism originally was administered by immersion for any individual who had confessed faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more in Jesus Christ and repented of their sins. This rite was administered without delay to admit the convert into communionis derived from the Latin term communio, which basically means to have in common. Words such as “partaking,” “sharing,” or “fellowship” are often translations of this root term. Partaking of the Eucharist is often referred to as the sacrament of... more with the Christian church. Paul explained that baptismFrom a Greek word meaning “to immerse;” and is an initiatory ritual washing whereby one becomes a member of the Christian community. It involves various symbolic meanings including, cleansing, the death and resurrection of Christ, and a sinners death and... more was symbolic of Jesus’s crucifixion, burial and resurrectionThe doctrine that Jesus’ spiritual essence was reunited with his physical body and that other humans will likewise live again with their spirit or soul reunited with their material body. This term does not refer to the doctrine of the... more in his epistles (Romans 6:3–5 and Colossians 2:12). The simplicityRefers to the philosophical concept applicable to the source of all creation that also has no parts. for example, Aristotle’s “great mover unmoved” or the traditional Christian God, To help understand the concept, think of a point in geometry. It... more of the ordinance began to change in the second century when newly baptized converts in some areas were instructed to act like little children, and were fed milk and honey to emphasize their innocence after baptismFrom a Greek word meaning “to immerse;” and is an initiatory ritual washing whereby one becomes a member of the Christian community. It involves various symbolic meanings including, cleansing, the death and resurrection of Christ, and a sinners death and... more being similar to that of a young child. Some places adopted parts of the Roman ceremony used to free slaves because the converts were being “freed” from servitude to Satan, and as new soldiers in ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more, they swore obedience to their leaders similar to the way new recruits did in the Roman army. Instead of baptizing converts immediately, they required them to engage in a lengthy catechism process and baptisms were only conducted twice a year on Easteris the most sacred holiday of the Christian calendar and celebrates the resurrection of Jesus. There was a serious dispute between the western and eastern bishops in the early Church regarding the day Easter was to be celebrated. more and the Sunday associated with the day of PentecostComes from the Greek word for "fifty", and refers to the Jewish harvest festival also called the "feast of weeks", because it was held seven weeks (a week of weeks) and a day after Passover. Many Christian traditions view that... more (Whitsuntide). By the third century, the priests in some areas conducted exorcisms before the converts entered the baptismal font. Afterwards, the convert was given a white robe and a crown. In the fourth century, the ceremony was conducted under the light of candles, and salt was placed on the tongue of each new convert as a symbol of purity and wisdom, with the addition of a double anointing of oil before and after the baptismFrom a Greek word meaning “to immerse;” and is an initiatory ritual washing whereby one becomes a member of the Christian community. It involves various symbolic meanings including, cleansing, the death and resurrection of Christ, and a sinners death and... more.21

The first baptisms by sprinkling occurred in the third century for those who were infirm and unable to be baptized by immersion22. Bishop Cyprian(A.D. 210–14 Sep 258) Bishop of Carthage between 248 and 258 who sparked a controversy when he fled during the Emperor Decian persecution and then later returned to assume his post. Several persons opposed him retaining his position because they... more made the first exception for a heretic named Novatus who sought rebaptism shortly before his death.23

This practice was initially resisted by the clergyconsists of the priest, ministers and pastors of Christian churches. In the medieval church this term referred to both regular priest who were monks subject to a rule (regula) of a monastic order and secular priest who were not monks... more and laityOr “lay persons” is a term derived from the Greek word for “the people,” and refers to the rank and file membership of the church in contrast to the clergy. The distinction is much greater and more important in Roman... more. The historian Eusebius (270–340) quoted Cornelius, the bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more of Rome, objecting to a personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more who was baptized by sprinkling being ordained to the priesthood: “All the clergyconsists of the priest, ministers and pastors of Christian churches. In the medieval church this term referred to both regular priest who were monks subject to a rule (regula) of a monastic order and secular priest who were not monks... more and many of the laityOr “lay persons” is a term derived from the Greek word for “the people,” and refers to the rank and file membership of the church in contrast to the clergy. The distinction is much greater and more important in Roman... more resisted it, since it was not lawful that one baptized in his sick bed by aspersion, as he was, should be promoted to any order of the clergyconsists of the priest, ministers and pastors of Christian churches. In the medieval church this term referred to both regular priest who were monks subject to a rule (regula) of a monastic order and secular priest who were not monks... more.”24

The baptismFrom a Greek word meaning “to immerse;” and is an initiatory ritual washing whereby one becomes a member of the Christian community. It involves various symbolic meanings including, cleansing, the death and resurrection of Christ, and a sinners death and... more of heretics who sought fellowship with the established Christian church became a hotly contested dispute in the third century and played a role in the Donatistinvolves a controversy arising in Carthage at the beginning of the 4th century and lasted until the 6th century. The dispute centered on the legitimacy of the appointment of imperfect bishops against the popular will of the diocese and the... more controversy which arose near the end of the century. The Eastern churches and the North African churches required individuals who had been baptized into a heretical Christian spinoff religion (typically a Gnostic derivative such as Marcionism and Manichaeism) to be rebaptized in order to be in fellowship with their church and participate in the sacrament more of the Lord’s Supper and other sacraments. This requirement is similar to the typical current ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more approach that accepts the baptismFrom a Greek word meaning “to immerse;” and is an initiatory ritual washing whereby one becomes a member of the Christian community. It involves various symbolic meanings including, cleansing, the death and resurrection of Christ, and a sinners death and... more of other ProtestantContrary to popular belief, the term does not refer to protest against the Roman Catholic Church. The term original refers to a formal protest lodged by Lutheran princes against an unfavorable decision made by the imperial Diet of Speyer in... more denominations but not LDS (Mormon) or Jehovah’s Witnesses baptisms because they deem them to be heretical. However, the bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more of Rome did not require a heretic to be rebaptized if he was previously baptized in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, regardless of who performed the ordinance. Some of the letters debating this issue between Bishop Cyprian(A.D. 210–14 Sep 258) Bishop of Carthage between 248 and 258 who sparked a controversy when he fled during the Emperor Decian persecution and then later returned to assume his post. Several persons opposed him retaining his position because they... more and Bishop Stephen (both of whom were referred to as popes of their geographical areas) and others are extant, wherein Cyprian contends for the traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more of equality and independence of the bishops. This dispute settled down somewhat in the late third century as the regional bishops generally acknowledged the right of each to govern as he deemed appropriate, until it was reignited by the Donatistinvolves a controversy arising in Carthage at the beginning of the 4th century and lasted until the 6th century. The dispute centered on the legitimacy of the appointment of imperfect bishops against the popular will of the diocese and the... more controversy.

Christianity arrived later to North Africa than to other areas of the Roman Empire(27 B.C.) After a period of unrest and competing generals jockeying for power, Octavian, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, becomes the first official Emperor of Rome, being known as Augustus. Octavian’s rule initiated an approximately 200 year period of... more, but it spread rapidly across all social classes during the third century. The zeal associated with new converts was ingrained in the psyche of the church. Martyrdom was a significant feature of Christianity in North Africa from the start. The memory of twelve Christians who were executed near Carthage in 180 CE became a rallying call similar to the way “Remember the Alamo” did for early Americans. Tertullian(c. A.D. 160–225) North African priest and theologian, the first major Latin Christian author. Despite the large number of his writings that have survived, his influence was limited because at the end of his life he joined the Montanist heresy. more, in Alexandria, penned the famous words that “the blood of the martyrs was the seed of Christianity’s growth.” He taught that the saintsIs a term used in the New Testament for Christian believers. In Roman Catholicism it refers to officially canonized, deceased holy men and women who can intercede with God on behalf of ordinary men and women and whose ascension to... more needed to prepare for the imminent second coming of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more and the end of the world. Strict adherence to the commandments was essential, and one must be prepared to die for their faithIn word for belief and faith is the same in Latin and most European languages, but in English faith often denotes an active believe, one that inspires action based on a belief. For Luther, faith and belief generally meant the... more at any moment. The father of the influential Origen(c. A.D. 185–254) Alexandrian theologian famous for his commentaries and homilies on the scriptures, which established a long-lasting tradition of Christian allegorical exegesis. Long after his death, his speculations about the preexistence and the Fall were a cause of intense... more (who became the head of the renowned Christian school in Alexandria when he was only seventeen years old) died a martyr when Origen(c. A.D. 185–254) Alexandrian theologian famous for his commentaries and homilies on the scriptures, which established a long-lasting tradition of Christian allegorical exegesis. Long after his death, his speculations about the preexistence and the Fall were a cause of intense... more was a young man. Origen(c. A.D. 185–254) Alexandrian theologian famous for his commentaries and homilies on the scriptures, which established a long-lasting tradition of Christian allegorical exegesis. Long after his death, his speculations about the preexistence and the Fall were a cause of intense... more later castrated himself as a sign of his devotion to God. One of the most moving martyrdom stories is found in the diary kept by Perpetua, a well-educated twenty-two-year-old nursing mother as she and her pregnant companion, Felicitas, awaited their martyrdom.  Her heartrending and courageous words galvanized a generation of believers at the start of the third century, and still touch hearts to this day.25

During the imperial persecution between 250 and 258 CE, many Christians buckled under the intense pressure and complied with the civil demand to make an offering to the pagan gods. These individuals were referred to as the “lapsed.” After the persecution ended, many of these individuals desired to return to full fellowship in the Christian Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more, to the consternation of many of the Christians who had remained faithful and suffered through the persecution. It just didn’t seem fair. So the bishops began to require the lapsed to perform acts of public penanceIs an old version of the word “repentance,” and refers to: 1) the Catholic sacrament also referred to as Confession where remorseful sinner (the “penitent”) confesses sins to a priest (the “confessor:”) who grants absolution; 2) the activities stipulated by... more to demonstrate their contritionusually refers to one of the four parts of the sacrament of Penance in the Roman Catholic Church that consists of hating one’s sins. Luther rejected this requirement because he felt that it only caused greater uncertainty and anxiety in... more and satisfy the faithful members’ demand for justice. This was a major step in the development of the Catholic practice of penanceIs an old version of the word “repentance,” and refers to: 1) the Catholic sacrament also referred to as Confession where remorseful sinner (the “penitent”) confesses sins to a priest (the “confessor:”) who grants absolution; 2) the activities stipulated by... more which requires sinners to perform works to satisfy the demands of justice. This practice later became part of a major theological dispute that split Christianity during the Protestant Reformation(A.D. 1517) The Protestant Reformation begins as Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses, largely in response to the widespread abuses caused by the aggressive commercialization of indulgences. more.

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The Donatist Controversy