Boethius and Christian Philosophy

Constantine’s descendants were unable to keep the empire together. The fourth century was a period of decline marked by civil wars, economic upheaval and increasing pressure from invading Germanic tribes fleeing the Huns.

In 395, Emperor TheodosiusTheodosius (A.D. 347–395) was Roman Emperor from A.D. 379 until his death. He was the last emperor to rule over a united Roman Empire, his two sons Arcadius and Honorius inheriting the eastern and western halves respectively. He made Nicene... more I died and the empire split in two, never to be reunited. The Eastern empire gradually increased in power and became known as the Byzantine Empire, while the west continued its decline, creating mistrust, rivalry and conflict with the Eastern empire. In 410, the Goths sacked Rome and then advanced south to attack the Roman holdings in North Africa. A few years later, the Vandals (another GermanicReferring to an Indo-European ethnic group of people originating in northern Europe. The Roman Empire bordered on Germanic lands for centuries and the two groups of people frequently fought each other. As the Roman Empire weakened, Germanic tribes migrated further... more tribe) conquered North Africa. The official end of the Roman Empire(27 B.C.) After a period of unrest and competing generals jockeying for power, Octavian, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, becomes the first official Emperor of Rome, being known as Augustus. Octavian’s rule initiated an approximately 200 year period of... more occurred in 476, when the Ostrogoth general Odoacer deposed the Roman child emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more, Romulus Augustulus, and proclaimed himself ruler over Italy.

The eastern half of the empire was more successful in its battles with the OstrogothsThe eastern branch of the Germanic Goths. The Eastern Roman Empire commissioned them to invade Italy and take it back from Odoacer. They conquered the peninsula and establish the Kingdom of Italy. Although the Ostrogoths were Arian Christians, they fostered... more. In 461, the Ostrogoth king surrendered his eight-year-old son, Theodoric, as a hostage to secure a peace treaty with ConstantinopleWas established in A.D. 324 by Emperor Constantine as the Eastern capital of the Roman Empire. The city was built over the much smaller ancient city of Byzantium from which the Byzantium empire is named. After the fall of Rome... more and the Ostrogoth’s annual payment of three hundred pounds of gold. Theodoric spent his formative years under the care of Emperor Leo I, who ensured he was educated by Constantinople’s best teachers. Eight years later, Leo I sent Theodoric home where he assumed control of the Gothic regions previously ruled by his uncle. Later, with Leo I’s encouragement, Theodoric attacked Odoacer, the Gothic ruler of Rome. After gaining the upper hand in battle, Theodoric promised Odoacer life and liberty if he surrendered, but once he did, Theodoric immediately reneged on the promise and had him murdered. Theodoric then proclaimed himself ruler of the Western empire. Theodoric’s hold on power was tenuous, so he was quick to take out anyone of whom he became suspicious or who stood in his way.

Odoacer and Theodoric maintained the illusion of normalcy, but Rome would never be the same again.

The trappings of Roman civil and political life including the Senate were tolerated, for a time, by the new rulers who were focused on enriching themselves and their followers at the expense of the Roman people. Roman dominance and society had long been in decline and its leaders were deeply corrupt and willing to win favors from Theodoric’s government in exchange for selling out their friends and associates.”1

This period of corruption and intrigue in the senate, and great distrust between the east and the west, set the stage for the moving story of BoethiusAnicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (A.D. 477–524) was a Roman statesman and theologian who came into public service under the Ostrogothic King Theodoric. Boethius composed several philosophical handbooks and translated some of Aristotle’s works, all of which greatly influenced the early... more.2

In the year 524, a Roman gentleman named Anicius Manlius Severinus BoethiusAnicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (A.D. 477–524) was a Roman statesman and theologian who came into public service under the Ostrogothic King Theodoric. Boethius composed several philosophical handbooks and translated some of Aristotle’s works, all of which greatly influenced the early... more languished in prison awaiting execution for treason against the king. Boethius’ family had a long and noble history dating back hundreds of years to at least the early days of the Roman Empire(27 B.C.) After a period of unrest and competing generals jockeying for power, Octavian, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, becomes the first official Emperor of Rome, being known as Augustus. Octavian’s rule initiated an approximately 200 year period of... more, and including senators, consuls, emperors, and prefects, and culminating 65 years after Boethius’ death with Pope Gregory the Great(died A.D. 12 Mar 604) Gregory I became pope in 590 and earned the designation “great” due to his insistence of the authority of the papacy and the great missionary effort to the British Isles and northern Europe that initiated... more. The Anicii family had become fabulously wealthy, owning many large estates and gaining a reputation for profitable generosity…They were among the first noble families to convert to Christianity during the reign of ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more.

Although orphaned at an early age, BoethiusAnicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (A.D. 477–524) was a Roman statesman and theologian who came into public service under the Ostrogothic King Theodoric. Boethius composed several philosophical handbooks and translated some of Aristotle’s works, all of which greatly influenced the early... more was adopted into another prominent Roman family (his step-father later became his father-in-law) and enjoyed a privileged life and an education in science, mathematics, history, Greek, and philosophy that was becoming increasingly rare in an Italy that was no longer an empire but was occupied by foreign conquerors (in Boethius’ time, the Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great).

As a brilliant scholar and gentleman of leisure, BoethiusAnicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (A.D. 477–524) was a Roman statesman and theologian who came into public service under the Ostrogothic King Theodoric. Boethius composed several philosophical handbooks and translated some of Aristotle’s works, all of which greatly influenced the early... more might have lived out his life insulated from the increasing collapse of the civilization he cherished. But BoethiusAnicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (A.D. 477–524) was a Roman statesman and theologian who came into public service under the Ostrogothic King Theodoric. Boethius composed several philosophical handbooks and translated some of Aristotle’s works, all of which greatly influenced the early... more was lured into the civil service at Theodoric’s court at Revenna with hopes of combatting corruption and fighting for the rights of the people. This was an inevitable, but fatal decision.3

Boethius’s father had been consul of Rome, setting the course for his son’s future. BoethiusAnicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (A.D. 477–524) was a Roman statesman and theologian who came into public service under the Ostrogothic King Theodoric. Boethius composed several philosophical handbooks and translated some of Aristotle’s works, all of which greatly influenced the early... more followed in his father’s steps and dedicated his life to God, study and public service. Like his father, BoethiusAnicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (A.D. 477–524) was a Roman statesman and theologian who came into public service under the Ostrogothic King Theodoric. Boethius composed several philosophical handbooks and translated some of Aristotle’s works, all of which greatly influenced the early... more was a senator and became consul of Rome, the emperor’s right-hand man. This position was like being secretary of state, attorney general and the FBI all in one. He had the power to investigate and prosecute internal matters while directing foreign affairs under the emperor’s guidance. BoethiusAnicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (A.D. 477–524) was a Roman statesman and theologian who came into public service under the Ostrogothic King Theodoric. Boethius composed several philosophical handbooks and translated some of Aristotle’s works, all of which greatly influenced the early... more was true to his family traditionThis word comes from a Latin term meaning “to hand down,” that originally referred to the teaching of the apostles as handed down in the churches they founded, which led to these churches gaining authority of other locations due to... more and served with honor and integrity.

This concentration of power in a deteriorating society made BoethiusAnicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (A.D. 477–524) was a Roman statesman and theologian who came into public service under the Ostrogothic King Theodoric. Boethius composed several philosophical handbooks and translated some of Aristotle’s works, all of which greatly influenced the early... more a target of corrupt, envious, ambitious men. Knowing his penchant for defending the underdog, they set a trap for him. They accused a man of treason for allegedly conspiring to overthrow the emperor in order to reunite the Western empire with its stronger sister, the Byzantine Empire. Their evidence was some innocuous interaction with the Eastern empire. On cue, BoethiusAnicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (A.D. 477–524) was a Roman statesman and theologian who came into public service under the Ostrogothic King Theodoric. Boethius composed several philosophical handbooks and translated some of Aristotle’s works, all of which greatly influenced the early... more rose to the man’s defense and argued that the charges were so ridiculous that if this innocent activity were treason, then he and many other loyal citizens would also be guilty. The trap was sprung and the conspirators immediately produced forged letters alleging that BoethiusAnicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (A.D. 477–524) was a Roman statesman and theologian who came into public service under the Ostrogothic King Theodoric. Boethius composed several philosophical handbooks and translated some of Aristotle’s works, all of which greatly influenced the early... more was the head of this treasonous scheme to depose the emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more, knowing full well that Emperor Theodoric was insecure and suspicious of everyone.

BoethiusAnicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (A.D. 477–524) was a Roman statesman and theologian who came into public service under the Ostrogothic King Theodoric. Boethius composed several philosophical handbooks and translated some of Aristotle’s works, all of which greatly influenced the early... more, a refined, dignified, humble man at the pinnacle of power and prestige, overnight found himself in prison, abandoned by his friends, awaiting execution. This sudden change of fortune from the height of society to the pit of despair, caused him to reflect on the big questions of life, particularly, why bad things happen to good people. He then put pen to paper and wrote one of the most eloquent, moving pieces of literature of all time, The Consolation of PhilosophyDerived from the Greek term “philosophia”, the term literally means “love of wisdom”. Philosophy usually involves questioning, critical discussion, and rational argument. Greek philosophy laid the intellectual groundwork for Christian theology, and the concerns of the two areas of inquiry... more. As an aside, this is not some esoteric textbook but the yearning pathos of a man who found peace when all else was lost. I encourage all reading these words to add The Consolation of PhilosophyDerived from the Greek term “philosophia”, the term literally means “love of wisdom”. Philosophy usually involves questioning, critical discussion, and rational argument. Greek philosophy laid the intellectual groundwork for Christian theology, and the concerns of the two areas of inquiry... more to their must-read list, and feast upon its lush narrative, for its marriage of wisdom and virtue produced offspring of beautiful prose and illustrative metaphor unequaled by human intellect. He introduced dialectic dissertation. I hesitate to butcher this masterpiece by sharing samples of the dialogue, so I repeat my plea to read the full conversation between Lady PhilosophyDerived from the Greek term “philosophia”, the term literally means “love of wisdom”. Philosophy usually involves questioning, critical discussion, and rational argument. Greek philosophy laid the intellectual groundwork for Christian theology, and the concerns of the two areas of inquiry... more and an innocent man condemned to death at the hands of treachery and betrayal. The following narrative provides a glimpse into one of the most brilliant minds and pure hearts of recorded history through the literary device of a conversation with Lady PhilosophyDerived from the Greek term “philosophia”, the term literally means “love of wisdom”. Philosophy usually involves questioning, critical discussion, and rational argument. Greek philosophy laid the intellectual groundwork for Christian theology, and the concerns of the two areas of inquiry... more:

Meanwhile, as I still recorded these things for myself, and penned my tearful complaints, I saw, standing above the height of my head a woman, seemingly of great majesty, her eyes glowing and clear-sighted beyond the ordinary power of men. She had a lively color and such vigor and strength that it could not be diminished, despite the fact that she was of so great an age that no one would imagine that she was of our generation…

Then she came near and sat down upon the furthest corner of my bed and beholding that my face was bent to the earth, heavy and aggrieved with weeping, she used these words to grieve at the disquiet of my mind. … “Alas, how the mind of man, drowned with overflowing depression, dulls and abandons its own clarity, heading into foreign darkness whenever his troubles grow endlessly. It is driven to and fro by worldly winds. This man, that once was free, Alas! now he lies emptied of the light of his mind, and his neck is pressed with heavy chains, and bares his face downward for the great weight, and is forced to gaze on the foul earth! “But now is the time,” said she, “for medicine rather than complaint.”

She studied me with all the force of her eyes and said, “Are you not he who once, nourished with my milk and fostered with my meats escaped and grew to have the heart of a real man? Certainly, I gave you such armor that if you yourself had not first thrown them away, they should have defended you in invincible health. Don’t you know me? Why are you still?” … And when she saw me not only still, but without power over my tongue and all dumb, she laid her hand softly upon my breast and said, “Here there is no peril, he is fallen into a lethargy which is a common sickness of deceived hearts. He has forgotten himself a little, but certainly he shall easily remember himself if it is so he once knew me; and so he may do so, I will wipe his eyes a little that have been darkened by the cloud of mortal things. …”

I looked heavenward determined to know the face of my physician. So, setting my eyes on her and focusing my vision, I beheld my nurse Philosophy, in whose house I had conversed and spent time from my youth. I addressed her thus, “Oh thou mistress of all virtues, descended from the royal throne, why have you come into this solitary place of my exile? …

“Oh!” she exclaimed, “my child, should I forsake you now? …Whoever is of clear virtue, is sober, and leads a well-ordered life; Who has crushed proud words and can look with composure on either fortune; He may maintain his continence unruffled. Neither the storm, nor the menacing sea, turbulently churning up from the bottom, shall ever move that man. Neither the unstable mountain called Vesuvius that belches out smoky fire through its broken chimneys, nor the path of lightening that can strike high towers shall ever move that man. Why then, oh wretches, do you fear mad, criminal tyrants who are powerless? Hope for nothing; dread nothing; and so, you will disarm the rage of this unmighty tyrant. But whoever, quaking, fears or desires anything that is not solidly his own, that man has cast away his shield, is removed from his place, and has bound himself with the chains by which he may be drawn…

Then I, having gathered strength in my heart, answered, “And must you rehash or admonish? And isn’t it evident that Fortune has insanely turned against me? … Is this the reward that you give me after my obedience to your way? …You, and God, who puts you in the minds of wise folks, know that nothing brought me to power or dignity but the ordinary study of all goodness. And that is why between me and wicked folks there has been grievous discord that may not be resolved by prayers. For my liberty comes from freedom of conscience… How often have I covered for and defended by putting my authority in peril for the wretched poor folk, who were always tormented with endless distress and pain by the covetousness of unpunished foreigners! No man has ever yet lured me from right to wrong… Surely, even if Fortune was not ashamed at innocence being accused, she ought to have been ashamed at the filth of my accusers… Oh Mistress, what do you think of this?…

Sorrow has not so dulled my wits that I complain only that criminals plot felonies against virtue, but I am astonished that they are successful in carrying out their schemes, because the will to be wicked comes from our defects, but it is monstrous and a marvel that in the present sight of God, such things as every wicked man has conceived in his mind against innocence may be achieved and performed. In respect to this, one of your familiars asked not unskillfully, “If God is, whence comes evil? …  But now you can clearly see how I have ended up because of my innocence. I have received the pain of a false conviction as reward for my true virtue. … I who am separated from good people, stripped of my dignities, and have my good name besmirched by gossip, have suffered torment for my good deeds. I truly seem to see the gangs of criminal and wicked men reveling in joy and gladness. I see every crook fashioning new frauds to swindle to good folks. I see good men destroyed by their resistance to my peril while every disgraceful tormentor dares to commit all felonies with impunity and is egged on to do so with gifts. Innocence has not only been robbed of security but of defense; and therefore, I must cry to God in this way:

Oh, you who built the wheel that holds the stars fastened to Your everlasting throne, and which turns the heavens with an overpowering force… There is nothing that escapes Your ancient law, nor forgoes the work proper to its kind…Oh, You Governor, governing all things with set purpose, why do you only refuse to govern the works of man in like manner? Why do you allow slippery Fortune to so greatly upend the order of things so grievous pain that should in due course punish wicked folks, instead punishes the innocent? People of evil intent sit on high thrones, and irksome people tread unrightfully on the necks of holy men. Virtue, naturally clear and shining, is hidden in deep darkness; and the righteous man bears the pain and the blame of the criminal.…

When I had, with continual sorrow, sobbed or choked out these things, she with a peaceful aspect and not ruffled by my complaints said thus, “When I saw you, sorrowful and weeping, I knew from the start that you… have exiled yourself rather than someone having done it to you. Only you, yourself, can ever do that to you… So, I say that the face of this place [prison] does not move me so much as your own face. Nor do I long for the walls of your library, dressed and ornamented with ivory and glass, but rather the seat of your thought, in which I did not store books, but that which makes books precious, namely, the ideas in my books…You railed against Fortune, and you complained that folks are not rewarded according to their merits. And at the end of your mad rant, you prayed that the peace that governs the heavens should govern the earth…

I would have you answer this: do you remember that you are a man?”

“Why should I not remember that?”

“Can you tell me then, what thing is a man?”

“Are you asking me, whether I am a reasonable mortal beast? I know well and confess: that is what I am.”

“Do you not know that you were ever any other thing?”

“No,” I said.

“Now I know, the other cause of your malady, and that a great one: you have ceased to know who and what you are. Through this, I have plainly found the cause of your sickness, or else the gateway to recover your health. You are confounded with forgetting of yourself; for you cry that you are exiled from your own possessions. And since you do not know what the end of things is, you believe that criminal and wicked men are strong and healthy. And because you have forgotten by what law the world is governed, you think that these mutations of fortune fly about without governor. These are great causes not only of illness, but of death. But I thank the Maker and Author of health that nature has not totally abandoned you. I have a great treatment for your health, and that comes from your true understanding of the governance of the world since you believe it is not subject to chance folly but is ruled by God’s reason. Therefore, have no fear; for from this little spark, the light of life shall shine.4

From this beginning, Lady PhilosophyDerived from the Greek term “philosophia”, the term literally means “love of wisdom”. Philosophy usually involves questioning, critical discussion, and rational argument. Greek philosophy laid the intellectual groundwork for Christian theology, and the concerns of the two areas of inquiry... more gently lifts BoethiusAnicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (A.D. 477–524) was a Roman statesman and theologian who came into public service under the Ostrogothic King Theodoric. Boethius composed several philosophical handbooks and translated some of Aristotle’s works, all of which greatly influenced the early... more out of his despair to discover the source of peace and joy in the face of his imminent execution. She teaches him that the wheel of fortune constantly turns so sometimes we are on top while other times we are on the bottom. But looking at life from an eternal view puts things in their proper perspective. She elucidates the vanity of seeking wealth, power, esteem, fame and pleasure as sources of happiness. All that really matters is who we become, and living a shallow life of ease and comfort can hardly be called living. She consoles BoethiusAnicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (A.D. 477–524) was a Roman statesman and theologian who came into public service under the Ostrogothic King Theodoric. Boethius composed several philosophical handbooks and translated some of Aristotle’s works, all of which greatly influenced the early... more by helping him realize that God shares in our grief and our joy because lives in time as much as out of time. He is not some impersonal power that impassionedly watches everything he put into motion, rather he literally feels our pain. God is intimately involved in the details of our lives and the very essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more of existence itself. Boethius’s words infusedA term used in Catholic theology that is derived from the Latin word for “poured in” referring to the grace (love) of God that he pours into our hearts through the Holy Spirit (see Romans 5:5). This term is used... more the concept of God’s providenceThe word derived from the Latin word for “provide” and “foresee” that identifies the Medieval doctrine of God’s active benevolent sovereignty over all things and events in his creation, despite any appearance to the contrary. The universal belief in God’s... more into the medieval soul.

BoethiusAnicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (A.D. 477–524) was a Roman statesman and theologian who came into public service under the Ostrogothic King Theodoric. Boethius composed several philosophical handbooks and translated some of Aristotle’s works, all of which greatly influenced the early... more served as a bridge between the Greco-Roman era and the Middle Ages. He was the first personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more to wrestle with the philosophical issues he inherited from Greek philosophy and the teachings of the ancient Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more in a systematic manner. He became the father of medieval scholasticismRefers to the rational approach to theology that dominated Roman Catholic ideas in the High and Late Middle Ages that developed in the universities in contrast with the more devotional form of theology found in the monasteries during the early... more who followed his dialectic approach to philosophy and theology for the next thousand years. Without his writings, the European medieval intellectual movement might not have formed at all. Certainly, the basic medieval worldview would have been drastically different, along with world history. The scholar who translated Boethius’s Consolation of PhilosophyDerived from the Greek term “philosophia”, the term literally means “love of wisdom”. Philosophy usually involves questioning, critical discussion, and rational argument. Greek philosophy laid the intellectual groundwork for Christian theology, and the concerns of the two areas of inquiry... more into modern English had this to say about him:

Boethius’ erudition (he translated from Greek to Latin significant works of AristotleAristotle (384–322 B.C.) was a greek philosopher, founder of the sciences of logic, physics, and biology, whose writings were a major conceptual resource for medieval scholastic theologians, especially Aquinas. He studied under Plato, and in turn educated Alexander the Great.... more and Porphyry, wrote textbooks on logic and music, and composed theological treatises) would have an enormous influence on students of philosophy and divinity during the next thousand years. But none of Boethius’ legacy had as strong an influence on the Middle Ages as his final work, The Consolation of PhilosophyDerived from the Greek term “philosophia”, the term literally means “love of wisdom”. Philosophy usually involves questioning, critical discussion, and rational argument. Greek philosophy laid the intellectual groundwork for Christian theology, and the concerns of the two areas of inquiry... more. It was translated from the Latin for the benefit of the English people several times during the medieval period. First, into Anglo-Saxon (aka Old English) during the reign of King Alfred the GreatAlfred the Great (c. A.D. 847–899) was King of Wessex who, in the face of Viking invasions of the British Isles, became the first King of the Anglo-Saxons. He halted the Viking advances in England, established peace, and oversaw the... more who ruled from 870 to 899. Geoffrey ChaucerGeoffrey Chaucer (c. A.D. 1342–1400) wrote the influential The Canterbury Tales that tell the story of stock characters from the three different estates and classes of medieval society as the traveled as pilgrims to the shrine of Thomas Becket. We... more took his turn around 1385 turning it into the English of his day, now known as Middle English. Queen ElizabethQueen Elizabeth I (A.D. 1533–1603) was Queen of England and Ireland and inherited a realm wracked with religious strife caused by her father, King Henry VIII’s, establishment of the Church of England. Elizabeth was cautious, pursuing a policy of religious... more I translated it again in 1593. The appeal of The Consolation waned as Western man experience a ‘renaissance’ turning with ever-greater passionIn ancient Greek and Roman philosophy this term refers to both feelings and suffering because our superior rational mind suffers from being moved by emotion. Accordingly, passions were viewed as a vice and weakness. Accordingly, ancient moralist viewed passion as... more to the false gods of which BoethiusAnicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (A.D. 477–524) was a Roman statesman and theologian who came into public service under the Ostrogothic King Theodoric. Boethius composed several philosophical handbooks and translated some of Aristotle’s works, all of which greatly influenced the early... more so eloquently warned.

The plea within The Consolation that rang true for so many for 1500 years is in how to progress from an ordinary life of unhappy superficiality to a deep understanding of difficult concepts and values that can give our short lives purpose and joy. Rather than writing in esoteric philosophical terminology, BoethiusAnicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (A.D. 477–524) was a Roman statesman and theologian who came into public service under the Ostrogothic King Theodoric. Boethius composed several philosophical handbooks and translated some of Aristotle’s works, all of which greatly influenced the early... more creates a dialogueue between himself and “his old nurse” PhilosophyDerived from the Greek term “philosophia”, the term literally means “love of wisdom”. Philosophy usually involves questioning, critical discussion, and rational argument. Greek philosophy laid the intellectual groundwork for Christian theology, and the concerns of the two areas of inquiry... more. She finds him in his prison cell weighted down with bitterness and regret for having lost everything that makes life worthwhile. By gentle steps, she restores him from alienationprojecting the essence of one thing to belong to something different. This concept was used extensively by Hegel, Feuerbach, and Marx Feuerbach believed that humans project their essence to create God in their image, while Marx taught that humans become... more, to recognizing that he has lost nothing of true value and that he has not been abandoned by the immortal power of God.5

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