The Advent of Trinitarian Christianity
Historical Context
Before we discuss the NiceneRefers to the Trinitarian theology accepted by the Council of Nicaea in A.D. 325 that is the foundation of the “Nicene Creed” that was actually formulated at the Council of Constantinople in A.D. 381, that is accepted as orthodox theology... more Creed we need to set the stage for the controversy leading up to the 1st Council of Nicaea that created the NiceneRefers to the Trinitarian theology accepted by the Council of Nicaea in A.D. 325 that is the foundation of the “Nicene Creed” that was actually formulated at the Council of Constantinople in A.D. 381, that is accepted as orthodox theology... more Creed. As mentioned, power-politics played a major role in the early Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more. The major metropolitan areas of Rome, ConstantinopleWas established in A.D. 324 by Emperor Constantine as the Eastern capital of the Roman Empire. The city was built over the much smaller ancient city of Byzantium from which the Byzantium empire is named. After the fall of Rome... more, Alexandria, and AntiochA large and important city in Syria and the meeting point of the East and West. more rivaled for supremacy. In particular, the two major schools located in Alexandria and AntiochA large and important city in Syria and the meeting point of the East and West. more engaged in sustained and intense rivalry for centuries.
The Christian school of Alexandria tapped into a long legacy of learning based in that city. During the 3rd Century B.C. its Greek Ptolemaic rulers constructed one of the largest and most important libraries in the ancient world. For centuries Alexandria functioned as a major center of philosophy and learning. The Platonist Jewish philosopher Philo(c. 20 B.C.–A.D. 50) Jewish philosopher and exegete who used an allegorical method to interpret the scriptures that was influential on ancient Christian writers, especially in Alexandria. more of Alexandria, a contemporary of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more, emphasized an allegoric approach to interpret scripture. This method was adopted by many early Christian fathers. Indeed, Augustine(A.D. 354-430) Bishop of Hippo in North Africa, the most influential theologian of the West, known especially for his doctrine of grace, including related doctrines of original sin and predestination. more was converted to Christianity when AmbroseAurelius Ambrosius (c. A.D. 340–397) was Bishop of Milan, which had by then become the capital of the Western Roman Empire. He had government experience as a governor, and he used his experience and his position in Milan to exert... more introduced him to this technique to help Augustine(A.D. 354-430) Bishop of Hippo in North Africa, the most influential theologian of the West, known especially for his doctrine of grace, including related doctrines of original sin and predestination. more overcome his objections to many Old Testament stories and rituals. The Alexandrian school became the center for this Platonist perspective in Christianity, which emphasized the spiritual and downplayed the empirical. The Alexandrians liked to quote Paul(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 64) Apostle and early Christian missionary, whose letters are the earliest documents contained in the New Testament and thus the first extant writings in Christian theology. more: “the letter killeth, but the spirit giveth life.”2 They accused their opponents in AntiochA large and important city in Syria and the meeting point of the East and West. more, who read the scriptures literally, of killing the true gospel message.
On the other hand, the proponents of the school in AntiochA large and important city in Syria and the meeting point of the East and West. more accused the Alexandrians of corrupting the clear literal meaning of scripture. The dispute carried on, each school writing polemic literature defending their “correct” approach and attacking the other. The Antiochians strove to separate the divine and human nature of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more while emphasizing his humanity while the Alexandrians emphasized the union of the divine and the human natures of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more with the dominance of the divine.
The dispute came to a head when the dynamic theologian Arius(c. 256-336) Alexandrian presbyter whose teaching on the Trinity was condemned at the Council of Nicaea A.D. 325. (See Arianism and Arian Controversy.) more, who was trained in AntiochA large and important city in Syria and the meeting point of the East and West. more, moved to Alexandria and became a priest at one of the local churches. He taught that ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more was a created being subordinate to God the Father, and because he was created by the Father, there was a time when he did not exist. This upset a rival priest named Athanasius(c. A.D. 296–373) Athanasius was a Bishop of Alexandria and was a leading proponent of orthodox trinitarianism in opposition to Arianism. His positions led him into conflict with fellow ecclesiastical leaders as well as emperors, but his positions ultimately prevailed. more who insisted that God was only one essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more and Arius(c. 256-336) Alexandrian presbyter whose teaching on the Trinity was condemned at the Council of Nicaea A.D. 325. (See Arianism and Arian Controversy.) more was teaching heresyComes from a Greek term meaning “sect,” and was used by the early Church theologians to identify doctrines that they rejected as not orthodox. The term does not refer to unbelief but ideas held by some baptized Christian that was... more. Athanasius(c. A.D. 296–373) Athanasius was a Bishop of Alexandria and was a leading proponent of orthodox trinitarianism in opposition to Arianism. His positions led him into conflict with fellow ecclesiastical leaders as well as emperors, but his positions ultimately prevailed. more complained to the local bishopA person holding the ecclesiastical office that exerciseds authority over the laity and priests in a geographical area called a “diocese” where the bishop’s “see,” or seat, is located, which is referred to as his bishopric. Also see episcopate. more, Alexander, and the fight became very intense.
A modern application might be instructive here. Imagine a modern-day setting in which a charismatic, fundamentalist BaptistThe first English Baptist congregation is created (A.D. 1609) out of a Puritan Separatist congregation that is meeting in exile in the Netherlands. This tradition grew out of the English Puritan Separatist movement in the 17th century and later spread... more preacher from Texas moves to Boston and becomes the priest at a local Catholic parishIs a local geographical and administrative unit in the Catholic Church overseen by a parish priest under the direction of the diocese’s bishop. Some Protestant religions retained parishes in their organizations). more. He becomes very popular teaching that infant baptismFrom a Greek word meaning “to immerse;” and is an initiatory ritual washing whereby one becomes a member of the Christian community. It involves various symbolic meanings including, cleansing, the death and resurrection of Christ, and a sinners death and... more is not scriptural. He also insists that it is nonsense that the sacramental host is the literal body of Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more. This upsets a hot-blooded Irish priest from a neighboring parishIs a local geographical and administrative unit in the Catholic Church overseen by a parish priest under the direction of the diocese’s bishop. Some Protestant religions retained parishes in their organizations). more, who cannot rest until this heresyComes from a Greek term meaning “sect,” and was used by the early Church theologians to identify doctrines that they rejected as not orthodox. The term does not refer to unbelief but ideas held by some baptized Christian that was... more is obliterated.
This dispute in Alexandria spread and involved the whole empire. Bishops as far away as Spain felt obliged to opine on the issue. It became so hotly contested that Christians were ridiculed by their pagan neighbors. Here is how one ancient record describes the atmosphere at the time:
“Everywhere in the public squares, at the crossroads, on the streets and lanes, people would stop you and discourse at random about the trinity. If you asked something of the moneychanger, he would begin discussing the question of the Begotten and Unbegotten. If you questioned a baker about the price of bread, he would answer that the Father was greater and the Son is subordinate to him. If you went to take a bath, the Anomoean bath attendant would tell you that in his opinion the Son came from nothing.”3
Another ancient historian wrote:
“The workmen in the port, the sailor, the idle and the common people in the street knew these songs [written by Arius], and assailed the ears of the faithful of Alexandria with them. Whence endless fights… The public was interested in these questions, even the pagan public, who, be it well understood, made use of the occasion to amuse themselves at the expense of the Christians and of their beliefs. The quarrel of Arius(c. 256-336) Alexandrian presbyter whose teaching on the Trinity was condemned at the Council of Nicaea A.D. 325. (See Arianism and Arian Controversy.) more and Alexander echoed even in the theatres.”4
The religious glue that ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more had recently chosen to hold his empire together was tearing it apart. Something had to be done, so he called a counsel of bishops to be held in Nicaea in AD 325.
Typically, historians state that the orthodoxDerived from a Greek term meaning “right belief” and also “right worship.” When the term is not capitalized it typically refers to teachings in Christian traditions that are not heretical. When capitalized it refers to the mainstream Christian tradition in... more position prevailed at this council, but that is true simply because that is the position that ultimately prevailed and became the orthodoxDerived from a Greek term meaning “right belief” and also “right worship.” When the term is not capitalized it typically refers to teachings in Christian traditions that are not heretical. When capitalized it refers to the mainstream Christian tradition in... more position. The victors write the history. In reality, both Arius’s and Athanasius’s positions were extremes at the time. By far the dominant position was the Logos theology (described below), which had been the orthodoxDerived from a Greek term meaning “right belief” and also “right worship.” When the term is not capitalized it typically refers to teachings in Christian traditions that are not heretical. When capitalized it refers to the mainstream Christian tradition in... more teaching of the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more for two to three centuries. This teaching fell in the middle of these two extremes and was referred to as Semi-Arianism and subordination Christianity. However, this position was too nebulous to end the debate and satisfy the emperor’s need for a definitive conclusion to end the fighting. Ultimately, the emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more chose Athanasius’s Trinitarian position at the Council of Nicaea, and most of the bishops in attendance fell in line under threat of banishment.
However, that did not end the controversy that raged on for centuries. It is much easier to tell people what to believe than to actually get people to change their opinions. Over the next 100 years the orthodoxDerived from a Greek term meaning “right belief” and also “right worship.” When the term is not capitalized it typically refers to teachings in Christian traditions that are not heretical. When capitalized it refers to the mainstream Christian tradition in... more doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of the Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more regarding the trinity swung back and forth between ArianismAn extension of Logos subordinational theology advocated by Arius, a 4th century priest in Alexandrian, which asserted that Christ was simply a creation of God the Father and that “there was once when he [Chirst] was not.” This created a... more and Trinitarianism depending on what the emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more believed at the time. Many of the same bishops would vote one way in one council and the opposite way in a later council. Most of the converts to Christianity outside of the Empire were converted to an Arian version of Christianity, complicating the matter. However, in A.D. 496, the Frankish King, ClovisClovis I (c. A.D. 466–511) was a Frankish chieftain who united the Frankish tribes under the rule of one king. He ensured his kingship descended to his heirs, thereby establishing the Merovingian dynasty. Clovis I also converted to Catholicism, which... more I, under the influence of his Catholic wife, converted to Roman CatholicismThe Christian tradition that is synonymous with Western (Latin) Christianity and claims its authority back to Peter and the Apostles but was repudiated by Protestants beginning with the Reformation. more with its Trinitarian doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of deity. Over the next three hundred years he and his heirs proceeded to conquer many of the Arian Christian kingdoms in Europe. This led to the creation of the Catholic Holy Roman Empire(A.D. 962) The Holy Roman Empire emerges in the Germanic areas and Northern Italy with Otto I assuming the imperial crown descended from Charlemagne. more when the Pope crowned CharlemagneCharlemagne (c. A.D. 742–814) was the eldest son of Pepin, who became sole ruler of the Franks upon the death of his younger brother Carloman. Charlemagne dramatically expanded the Frankish kingdom and was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope... more emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more on ChristmasA Christian holiday celebrating the birth of Jesus in Bethlehem. The first recorded celebration of Easter occurred in Rome in A.D. 336. Why the date of the winter solstice was chosen is not clear but may have been based on... more Day, 800 CE.
Platonic Influence
We may wonder why this was such a heated debate. To us it may appear that they were quibbling over mere words, but such an assumption would be a mistake. To them, they were arguing over the very nature of God and their own personal salvation.
Christianity sprang from Jewish and Greco-Roman parents, and its religious and cultural DNA came from those roots. Christianity began as a Jewish sect in a Greco-Roman world, and both influences contributed to the debate regarding the nature of God leading up to the Council of Nicaea.
The Greco-Roman world held a schizophrenic view of divinity. On one hand, the ideas of various monotheistic philosophical schools prevailed in rational discussions while the myths of the pantheons of gods dominated social religious practice. Christians adopted, or at least adhered to, many of the philosophical concepts accepted by educated Romans, while they rejected wholesale the pagan gods whom the Christians viewed as not only false myths but as demons or stories created by the devil.
The philosophical ideas that influenced Christianity began with Heraclitus (550–480 BCE). He introduced the idea of the Logos as the universal mind that permeated everything and was the source of harmony and order in the universe. The word logosIs a Greek word meaning “word,” “reason.” and “logic.” It was an important concept in Greek philosophy. St. John opened his gospel identifying Christ as the Logos and is a key concept in Trinitarian debate. Logos Christianity refers to the... more literally means “word” but it developed a much broader meaning over the centuries leading up to the birth of Christianity. Socrates(470–399 B.C.). Socrates is credited with being the father of philosophy because he taught that the individual must begin by first examining himself. He challenged many assumptions and insisted on defining terms at the beginning of a debate in order... more (470–399 BCE) believed in one god. Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more (427–347 BCE) later introduced the idea of eternity or a dimension beyond time to Greek philosophy. He taught that this physical world was created by a transcendent eternal essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more, a master craftsman, who initiated time and fashioned our material universe in replica of a preexisting eternal model. Therefore, that which is eternal―outside of time―is divine while this material world is his creation and all humans and other living things are creatures. AristotleAristotle (384–322 B.C.) was a greek philosopher, founder of the sciences of logic, physics, and biology, whose writings were a major conceptual resource for medieval scholastic theologians, especially Aquinas. He studied under Plato, and in turn educated Alexander the Great.... more (385–323 BCE) also believed in one god (a force or principle) that was the “prime mover unmoved,” the first cause of all things.
Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more and AristotleAristotle (384–322 B.C.) was a greek philosopher, founder of the sciences of logic, physics, and biology, whose writings were a major conceptual resource for medieval scholastic theologians, especially Aquinas. He studied under Plato, and in turn educated Alexander the Great.... more advocated differing versions of a similar idea―that matter replicates eternal forms―which became accepted Greco-Roman dogma for millennia. PlotinusPlotinus (c. A.D. 204–270) was a philosopher born in Egypt under the Roman Empire. Plotinus followed the Platonic tradition, but adapted it with distinctly mystical or religious elements. In this form, it took on many similarities with Indian philosophy, but... more combined Plato’s “the Good” and Aristotles “First Principle” in his concept of “the One” which was simple, meaning without a body or parts. It was Being itself. It was Good itself. It was Beauty itself. We have being solely because we participate in the One’s being. In the third century BCE, Stoic philosophers adopted many of these earlier ideas and developed a more sophisticated doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more regarding the Logos as a sort of divine spiritual principle. This became the basic element of most Greco-Roman philosophy at the time of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more. The Logos represented reason, intelligent discourse, eternal truth, and the universal lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more that governs nature and human happiness, an intelligent principle, force and presence that is part of the essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more of all things, the source of creation: in sum, a pantheistic god.
Judaism was the first recorded monotheistic religion. Over millennia its leaders made a concerted effort to combat the polytheistic influences in the world around them. Yet the concept of the Logos played a role in its theology. The Aramaic term memra, which interpreted means “the Word,” was found throughout the Targums (Rabbinical writings that interpreted the Hebrew Bible) leading up to the time of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more. This term is often used as a substitute for the name of God in scriptures dealing with the creation and the source of wisdom such as the Book of Proverbs. The Platonist Jewish philosopher Philo(c. 20 B.C.–A.D. 50) Jewish philosopher and exegete who used an allegorical method to interpret the scriptures that was influential on ancient Christian writers, especially in Alexandria. more of Alexandria used the concept of Logos extensively. He taught that the Word was a shadow of God that He used to create the world and the second most universal thing after God. The Word was not like the uncreatedThis is a technical theological term originating in Greek philosophy that is used to determine what is eternal and divine and what was created by the divine. The premise is that everything is either created by God or is God... more God but was also not like created humans; the Logos existed in a state between both. He combined Jewish ideas with Platonist concepts to claim that the Logos was the sum total of all ideas in this intelligible world, God’s creative word, and His revelator. By the time Christianity was born, some Jews shared the Greco-Roman view that the Logos, the Word of God, was a life force that enabled the creations of their monotheistic God to move, breathe and exist. This concept was generally accepted by the Christian community.
The Apostle JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more opened his gospel by drawing on this Jewish and Greco-Roman understanding of the logosIs a Greek word meaning “word,” “reason.” and “logic.” It was an important concept in Greek philosophy. St. John opened his gospel identifying Christ as the Logos and is a key concept in Trinitarian debate. Logos Christianity refers to the... more, the Word of God, when he wrote:
“In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. The same was in the beginning with God. All things were made by him; and without him was not any thing made that was made. In him was life; and the life was the light of men.”5
These concepts were not new to his Jewish or Gentile audience. What was revolutionary was his assertion that: “The Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us.” (JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more 1:14). The idea that Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more was the logosIs a Greek word meaning “word,” “reason.” and “logic.” It was an important concept in Greek philosophy. St. John opened his gospel identifying Christ as the Logos and is a key concept in Trinitarian debate. Logos Christianity refers to the... more incarnate became a central Christian doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more.
Logos Theology
The earliest Christian apologist Justin Martyr(c.A.D 100–165) Born in Palestine early in the 2nd century, Justin was educated as a philosopher and converted to Christianity, retaining many of his Platonist convictions. He wrote an important Apology (meaning a defense of Christianity against the pagans) and... more (approximately A.D. 100-165) used the familiar concept of the logosIs a Greek word meaning “word,” “reason.” and “logic.” It was an important concept in Greek philosophy. St. John opened his gospel identifying Christ as the Logos and is a key concept in Trinitarian debate. Logos Christianity refers to the... more to describe the divine nature of Christ. According to Justin, Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more was the personification of the logosIs a Greek word meaning “word,” “reason.” and “logic.” It was an important concept in Greek philosophy. St. John opened his gospel identifying Christ as the Logos and is a key concept in Trinitarian debate. Logos Christianity refers to the... more and embodied a fullness of the logosIs a Greek word meaning “word,” “reason.” and “logic.” It was an important concept in Greek philosophy. St. John opened his gospel identifying Christ as the Logos and is a key concept in Trinitarian debate. Logos Christianity refers to the... more principles. The rest of humanity, however, had a seed of the logosIs a Greek word meaning “word,” “reason.” and “logic.” It was an important concept in Greek philosophy. St. John opened his gospel identifying Christ as the Logos and is a key concept in Trinitarian debate. Logos Christianity refers to the... more that ennobled their soul. This seed of truth sown in the hearts of men was the source of correct thinking and right living. It acted as the lawIs a fundamental concept of Luthernism and is contrasted by Luther with the Gospel. For Luther, the law consists of God’s commands regarding how one should live which no one can fully obey. Consequently, the law functions to condemn and... more by which one will be judged. As a seed, it was capable of growing as humans embraced truth and righteousness. It functioned as a light of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more inside each personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more bringing life and understanding of the divine. Consequently, great moral teachers of the past, such as Heraclitus, Socrates(470–399 B.C.). Socrates is credited with being the father of philosophy because he taught that the individual must begin by first examining himself. He challenged many assumptions and insisted on defining terms at the beginning of a debate in order... more and Plato(c. 427–348 B.C.) Greek philosopher, Socrates’s student, Aristotle’s teacher, and founder of the only rigorously non materialist philosophical tradition in the West and, therefore, a major philosophical resource for Christian theology. more, were Christian without actually realizing it.
Justin taught that God the Father was both the source of the Logos and inseparable from it. He argued that just as the sun is distinct from the light that emanats from it, ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more is a separate personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more from God the Father. He emphatically declared that the Son was distinct from, and subordinate to the Father. To prove this point, he referred to passages of scripture such as when God the Father conversed with a distinct rational divine being prior to creation.6 Yet Justin also emphasized the divinity of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more. Indeed, he asserted that ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more, not the Father, was the divine entity with whom the Old Testament prophets interacted. He taught that the Son was unified with the Father in the same way that one flame can kindle a separate fire, each in essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more being the same, yet distinct.
One of the main doctrines taught by Justin (which later became central to the debate that birthed to the Council of Nicaea and also a key component of the mystery of the Trinity), was the timing of the Son’s creation. According to Justin, God the Father, who existed outside time, created the Son by his own will and power as the first step in the creative process. Even though the Father existed prior to the Son, the Logos (ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more) was created before the physical universe, so, technically, was not a creaturerefers to everything except God who is the Creator who created all things. more (as Arius(c. 256-336) Alexandrian presbyter whose teaching on the Trinity was condemned at the Council of Nicaea A.D. 325. (See Arianism and Arian Controversy.) more later insisted). Yet ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more was subordinate to the Father in regard to the creation and as a revelatory intermediary between the Father and humans. He also taught that the Son was worshipped in second place after God the Father.
This concept of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more being subordinate to the Father while remaining unified with Him was a central doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of the Christian community. It served as the framework for minor disputes that occasionally occurred leading up to the Arian controversy. Some theologians, such as Origen(c. A.D. 185–254) Alexandrian theologian famous for his commentaries and homilies on the scriptures, which established a long-lasting tradition of Christian allegorical exegesis. Long after his death, his speculations about the preexistence and the Fall were a cause of intense... more and Tertullian(c. A.D. 160–225) North African priest and theologian, the first major Latin Christian author. Despite the large number of his writings that have survived, his influence was limited because at the end of his life he joined the Montanist heresy. more, acknowledged the subordination of the Son while others, such as Irenaeus(c. A.D. 120–200) Bishop of Lyon, the most important Christian theologian of the 2nd century; author of a large work, Against Heresies. more, emphasized the unity of God. Even so, Irenaeus(c. A.D. 120–200) Bishop of Lyon, the most important Christian theologian of the 2nd century; author of a large work, Against Heresies. more recognized an intermediary role of the Word and taught “the Word became a man, so men may become gods.” Orthodox theology and most theologians prior to the Arian controversy acknowledged some level of subordination of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more in relation to the Father.
Sabellian Heresy
A Trinitarian dispute occurred around A.D. 220 when a priest named Sabellius(c. A.D. 215) He was an early Christian theologian who taught that God is indivisible so the Father, Son and Holy Spirit are simply different manifestations or modes of the same entity. This view of the trinity was condemned, holding... more argued that the godhead did not consist of three separate persons but instead was one entity working through three different modes or aspects: creation through the Father, redemption through the Son, and sanctificationDerived from the Latin word sanctus for “holy” and literally means “becoming holy.” In most Protestant theology it refers to the process of become a more moral individual through an internal transformation following justification that occurs at the time of... more through the Holy Spirit. His teachings emphasized the unity and absolute divinity and greatness of God and held that dividing God into three separate persons diminished his greatness. His ideas at first gained favor with some theologians, including the Pope, but were soon rejected by the Pope and most Christians, who continued to hold to a belief in the distinct personhood of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. This heresyComes from a Greek term meaning “sect,” and was used by the early Church theologians to identify doctrines that they rejected as not orthodox. The term does not refer to unbelief but ideas held by some baptized Christian that was... more in its general application is variously referred to as Sabellianism, Modalistic Monarchianism and Patripassianism. Asserting that the Father, Son and Holy Spirit are simply different names of the same entity, or that God can appear in different forms, or even using a three leaf clover to explain the TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more, in a broad sense are all examples of the Sabellian Heresy. Later, when the issue of the TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more came to a head in Alexandria, Arius(c. 256-336) Alexandrian presbyter whose teaching on the Trinity was condemned at the Council of Nicaea A.D. 325. (See Arianism and Arian Controversy.) more and his followers were quick to falsely accuse his rival Athanasius(c. A.D. 296–373) Athanasius was a Bishop of Alexandria and was a leading proponent of orthodox trinitarianism in opposition to Arianism. His positions led him into conflict with fellow ecclesiastical leaders as well as emperors, but his positions ultimately prevailed. more and those who adhered to his Trinitarian formulation, of Sabellianism.
The Arian Controversy
Arius(c. 256-336) Alexandrian presbyter whose teaching on the Trinity was condemned at the Council of Nicaea A.D. 325. (See Arianism and Arian Controversy.) more simply took the doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more of subordination to its logical conclusion based on the accepted reasoning of his time. If the Son originated from the Father, then there was a time when the Son did not exist. Based on the accepted Platonist and Aristotelian assumption that everything divine is eternal and not created, then ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more is not wholly divine. Consequently, he is a created being, a creaturerefers to everything except God who is the Creator who created all things. more of God, who is independent from and subordinate to the Father. Arius(c. 256-336) Alexandrian presbyter whose teaching on the Trinity was condemned at the Council of Nicaea A.D. 325. (See Arianism and Arian Controversy.) more quoted numerous scriptures to support his proposition, such as:
“for my Father is greater than I.” (JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more 14:28)
“The Son can do nothing of himself, but what he seeth the Father do.” (JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more 5:19)
“But of that day and that hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels which are in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father.” (Mark 13:32)
“Jesus increased in wisdom and stature, and in favour with God and man.” (Luke 2:52)
“this is life eternal, that they might know thee the only true God, and Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more, whom thou hast sent.”
“Why callest thou me good? there is none good but one, that is, God.” (Mark 10:18)
“O my Father, if it be possible, let this cup pass from me: nevertheless not as I will, but as thou wilt.” (Matthew 26:39)
“a bright cloud overshadowed them: and behold a voice out of the cloud, which said, This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased; hear ye him.” (Matthew 17:5)
“God also hath highly exalted him, and given him a name which is above every name.” (Philippians 2:9)
To combat their opponents’ claim that the Father and Son are one, Arius quoted JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more 17:21-22,
That they all may be one; as thou, Father, art in me, and I in thee, that they also may be one in us… And the glory which thou gavest me I have given them; that they may be one, even as we are one.
Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more prayed that his followers would become united with the Father in the same way that the Son and the Father were unified. So, Arius(c. 256-336) Alexandrian presbyter whose teaching on the Trinity was condemned at the Council of Nicaea A.D. 325. (See Arianism and Arian Controversy.) more argued that the Son was a distinct being from the Father just as humans were, and their unity did not mean they were the same personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more, essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more or substance.
Meanwhile, Athanasius(c. A.D. 296–373) Athanasius was a Bishop of Alexandria and was a leading proponent of orthodox trinitarianism in opposition to Arianism. His positions led him into conflict with fellow ecclesiastical leaders as well as emperors, but his positions ultimately prevailed. more insisted on the oneness and immateriality of God as understood by the Platonist philosophy and taught in the Alexandrian school of theology. He and his followers quoted scriptures to support their position:
“I and my Father are one.” (JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more 10:30)
“the Father is in me, and I in him.” (JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more 10:38)
“he that hath seen me hath seen the Father.” (JohnJohn (c. A.D. 6–100) was a Jewish fisherman, chosen by Jesus to be one of his 12 Apostles, and appears to have developed an especially close bond with Jesus. John outlived the other Apostles and heavily influenced early Christian thinkers... more 14:9)
“there is but one God, the Father, of whom are all things, and we in him; and one Lord Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more, by whom are all things, and we by him.” (1 Corinthians 8:6)
First Council of Nicaea
As previously mentioned, the controversy became so heated, public, and widespread that the new emperorRefers to the Emperor of the Roman Empire and its succeeding Byzantine Empire as well as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, beginning with Charlemagne. more, ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more, felt compelled to call a council to settle the matter. ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more not only called the council but also presided over its opening ceremony, participated in its discussions and ultimately had the final say over its outcome as its de facto supreme ruler. Even though ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more would not be baptized until he was on his deathbed years later—which was not uncommon for believers in that day—he referred to himself as Bishop of External Affairs throughout his reign. He insisted on a solution regarding the nature of God that would be definitive enough to end the dispute and restore tranquility to the empire.
At the start of the Council of Nicaea there were basically three main ideological divisions. The majority were moderates who represented the orthodoxDerived from a Greek term meaning “right belief” and also “right worship.” When the term is not capitalized it typically refers to teachings in Christian traditions that are not heretical. When capitalized it refers to the mainstream Christian tradition in... more position and were referred to as Semi-Arians. They professed the divinity of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more but were hesitant to recognize his complete unity and equality with the Father. The larger of the minority views was Athanasius’s Trinitarian position of perfect equality between the Father and the Son from all eternity, followed by the last viewpoint which was held by strict Arians who believed that Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more was a creaturerefers to everything except God who is the Creator who created all things. more and not fully divine.
I will not bore you with all the council’s internal political wrangling. Suffice it to say, it culminated in the creation and adoption of a new term to describe the Christian Godhead, homoousiosThis is the Greek term invented during the first Nicene Council to describe the relation between the Father and the Son in the Trinity and is the foundation of the Nicene Creed. The general translation of the term means “of... more, meaning one essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more or one substance. This new term, “the same substance,” was chosen over various rival suggestions in order to give no room for any leanings toward Arian ideas as the orthodoxDerived from a Greek term meaning “right belief” and also “right worship.” When the term is not capitalized it typically refers to teachings in Christian traditions that are not heretical. When capitalized it refers to the mainstream Christian tradition in... more doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more had done prior to this controversy.
The Nicene Creed
The final formulation of the original Nicene Creed created during the First Council of Nicaea(A.D. 325) The First Council of Nicaea (the first ecumenical council) condemns the teaching of Arius and approves a creed containing the homoousios clause. more that is now accepted by all traditional Christians reads as follows:
“We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of all things visible and invisible.
And in one Lord Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father the only-begotten; that is, of the essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more of the Father, God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father;
By whom all things were made both in heaven and on earth; Who for us men, and for our salvation, came down and was incarnate and was made man; He suffered, and the third day he rose again, ascended into heaven; From thence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead.
And in the Holy Ghost.”
The following addendum was attached to this creedis a Christian confession of faith that has obtained this title from the use of the Latin term credo, “I believe,” at the beginning of such formula of faith. Initially converts repeated a creed at the time of baptism but later... more:
“But those who say: ‘There was a time when he was not;’ and ‘He was not before he was made;’ and ‘He was made out of nothing,’ or ‘He is of another substance’ or ‘essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more,’ or ‘The Son of God is create,’ or ‘changeable,’ or alterable’― they are condemned by the holy catholicderived from the Greek word meaning “universal,” and was originally used to identify orthodox beliefs and practices that were universally accepted by all legitimate Christian churches. This term is often used to identify the Roman Catholic Church, even though many... more and apostolic Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more.”
This creed was later expanded in 381 A.D. at the First Council of Constantinople(A.D. 381) The First Council of Constantinople (the second ecumenical council) approves an expanded version of the creed of Nicaea, which is today called the Nicene Creed. more to read as follows:
“We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven, earth, and of all things visible and invisible. and in one Lord Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all worlds, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father; by whom all things were made; who for us men, and for our salvation, came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Ghost and of the Virgin MaryMary (born c. 18 B.C.) was a Galilean Jewish woman and mother of Jesus. Christians believe that Jesus was conceived miraculously through the Holy Spirit while betrothed to Joseph. She has been venerated since early Christianity and is considered by... more, and was made man; he was crucified for us under Pontius PilatePontius Pilate (c. 20 B.C.–c. A.D. 38) was the Roman Prefect of Judea from about 26 A.D. to 36 A.D. Jesus Christ was tried by Pontius Pilate, who found him to be without guilt, but acquiesced to the Jews’ demands... more, and suffered, and was buried and the third day he rose again, according to the Scriptures, and ascended into heaven and sitteth on the right hand of the Father; from thence he shall come again, with glory, to judge the quick and the dead; whose kingdom shall have no end. And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of life, who proceedeth from the Father, who with the Father and the Son together is worshiped and glorified, who spake by the prophets. In one holy catholicderived from the Greek word meaning “universal,” and was originally used to identify orthodox beliefs and practices that were universally accepted by all legitimate Christian churches. This term is often used to identify the Roman Catholic Church, even though many... more and apostolic Churcha term translated from the Greek word “Ecclesia” which means an assembly called together and is sometime translated as a congregation. A church is an organized group of believers who adhere to a set of core beliefs. The Church in... more; we acknowledge our baptismFrom a Greek word meaning “to immerse;” and is an initiatory ritual washing whereby one becomes a member of the Christian community. It involves various symbolic meanings including, cleansing, the death and resurrection of Christ, and a sinners death and... more for the remission of sins; we look for the resurrectionThe doctrine that Jesus’ spiritual essence was reunited with his physical body and that other humans will likewise live again with their spirit or soul reunited with their material body. This term does not refer to the doctrine of the... more of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.”
The Mystery of the Trinity
This formulation of the TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more created at the 1st Council of Nicaea resulted in the mystery of the TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more: that God is one indivisible substance yet three distinct persons, and that the Son was begotten by the Father yet there was never a time when the Son did not exist as a separate personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more from the Father. These contradictions were tolerated by the council due to its acceptance of the belief that God was incomprehensible.
As previously mentioned, this creedis a Christian confession of faith that has obtained this title from the use of the Latin term credo, “I believe,” at the beginning of such formula of faith. Initially converts repeated a creed at the time of baptism but later... more and anathema did not immediately end the controversy as ConstantineConstantine I (c. A.D. 272–337) was a Western Roman Emperor who, after a series of civil wars, became emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He strengthened the Empire through reforms and led successful military campaigns on the frontiers. He famously... more had hoped, but over time it eventually became settled Christian doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more. Augustine(A.D. 354-430) Bishop of Hippo in North Africa, the most influential theologian of the West, known especially for his doctrine of grace, including related doctrines of original sin and predestination. more tried to explain this concept of the TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more as follows:
“The Father is God; the Son is God, the Holy Spirit is God.
The Father is not the Son; the Son is not the Holy Spirit; the Holy Spirit is not the Father.
There is one God, and only one God.”7
In order to try to understand the reasoning behind this orthodoxDerived from a Greek term meaning “right belief” and also “right worship.” When the term is not capitalized it typically refers to teachings in Christian traditions that are not heretical. When capitalized it refers to the mainstream Christian tradition in... more concept of the TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more, one needs to ignore math. Instead, one needs to focus on relationships. The three separate entities are one because they are the same substance or essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more and all have the same will and the same actions. What distinguishes them is their relationship to one another. The Son originates from the Father, but the Father does not originate from the Son. Likewise, the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father while the Father does not proceed from the Holy Spirit. Even though the Son and Holy Spirit originate and proceed from the Father there never was a time when they did not exist as separate persons from the Father.
The concept that the TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more consists of three separate persons is somewhat clarified by the Latin word, hypostasisIs a Greek word for “complete individual being” as opposed to something that is a part of something else, hence a person, a plant, and a dog are each an hypostasis while a leg or a leaf are not. This... more, translated as “person”, which was used in these discussions. It does not mean a separate consciousness, personality or will that we associate with the word “personDerived from the Latin term persona and the Greek term prosopon. It is a technical term in Christian theology for the concept that the Trinity consist of three separate persons united as one essence with one of the persons (the... more.” This term actually means “mask,” referring to the dramatic charactercomes from a Latin word that basically means an “indelible mark” like a tattoo. Under Roman Catholic theology, this word is a term of art that refers to an indelible mark made on the soul by the sacraments of baptism,... more that an actor played in the theater. So, each member of the TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more plays three separate roles more than they are three separate persons, as we understand the term. This sounds a lot like the Sabellian Heresy that Arius(c. 256-336) Alexandrian presbyter whose teaching on the Trinity was condemned at the Council of Nicaea A.D. 325. (See Arianism and Arian Controversy.) more accused his rivals of adopting. Regardless, to counter that allegation, orthodoxDerived from a Greek term meaning “right belief” and also “right worship.” When the term is not capitalized it typically refers to teachings in Christian traditions that are not heretical. When capitalized it refers to the mainstream Christian tradition in... more doctrineis derived from the Latin word for teaching, doctrina, and is an important aspect of Christianity more so than other world religions because Christianity focuses on the teachings and nature of Christ. more maintains that each member of the Trinity is still distinct in number due to their relationships and roles even though they remain one substance. The concept of the TrinityThe Traditional Christian doctrine that God is simultaneously the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three persons in one, and addresses the relation between God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. This issue as at the center... more as adopted by the Great Churchis the term mainstream Christianity used to describe itself in the early church as opposed to heresies. more at the First Council of Nicaea(A.D. 325) The First Council of Nicaea (the first ecumenical council) condemns the teaching of Arius and approves a creed containing the homoousios clause. more is a human attempt to explain the incomprehensible God of the creeds.
The legacy of the NiceneRefers to the Trinitarian theology accepted by the Council of Nicaea in A.D. 325 that is the foundation of the “Nicene Creed” that was actually formulated at the Council of Constantinople in A.D. 381, that is accepted as orthodox theology... more Creed was a shift of Christianity’s focus from what Jesus did to who he was. This fundamental shift is symbolized by ChristmasA Christian holiday celebrating the birth of Jesus in Bethlehem. The first recorded celebration of Easter occurred in Rome in A.D. 336. Why the date of the winter solstice was chosen is not clear but may have been based on... more (celebrating the incarnation of God) supplanting Easteris the most sacred holiday of the Christian calendar and celebrates the resurrection of Jesus. There was a serious dispute between the western and eastern bishops in the early Church regarding the day Easter was to be celebrated. more (celebrating the resurrectionThe doctrine that Jesus’ spiritual essence was reunited with his physical body and that other humans will likewise live again with their spirit or soul reunited with their material body. This term does not refer to the doctrine of the... more of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more) as the major Christian holiday or “holy day.” We will see how this shift in emphasis led to the next major controversy in the Church: If the Father and the Son are the same essencethe English word generally used for the Greek term ousia, that is also translated as “being” or “substance” and refers to that which makes something what it is such as human nature is the essence of a human being. This... more, then who or what was Jesus(c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30-33) Also known as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, the Messiah, and Savior of the World. He is the founding figure of Christianity and accepted by Christians as the Son of God in the flesh. He taught... more? The Christological Controversy(c. A.D. 150–681) During the 2nd Century disputes began in the Christian Church regarding the nature of Christ and his relation to the Father and Holy Spirit. The concept of the Trinity was established at the 1st Council of Nicaea... more regarding the incarnation of ChristDerived from a Greek term meaning anointed and is equivalent to the word “messiah” from Hebrew roots. The anointing references the act of installing a new king similar to the modern custom of crowning a king, so the term “Christ”... more soon emerged and would not be resolved until the Third Council of ConstantinopleThe First Council of Constantinople convened in AD 381 is one of the most important ecumenical councils of Christianity. It dealt with issues of the Trinity, particularly issues involving the Holy Spirit. more in A.D. 680.
What if the greatest crisis of our time wasn’t political, economic, or even scientific, but spiritual? The Human Quest for Meaning, presents an unflinching, scholarly, and soul-searching excavation of humanity’s deepest longings. This work cuts through the fog of postmodern relativism and the sterile worship of science to confront the core dilemma of our time: why does a civilization without God still hunger for transcendence? Drawing from ethnological studies, ancient texts, and forgotten philosophical wisdom, Hallstrom traces the arc of religious and philosophical history; not to convert, but to clarify. In a world obsessed with novelty, this book dares to remember.
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Church History in Plain Language
by Bruce Shelley and Marshall Shelley
Bruce Shelley's classic history of the church brings the story of global Christianity into the twenty-first century. Like a skilled screenwriter, Shelley begins each chapter with three elements: characters, setting, plot. Taking readers from the early centuries of the church up through the modern era he tells his readers a story of actual people, in a particular situation, taking action or being acted upon, provides a window into the circumstances and historical context, and from there develops the story of a major period or theme of Christian history. Covering recent events, this book also: Details the rapid growth of evangelical and Pentecostal Christianity in the southern hemisphere; Addresses the decline in traditional mainline denominations; Examines the influence of technology on the spread of the gospel; Discusses how Christianity intersects with other religions in countries all over the world. For this fifth edition, Marshall Shelley brought together a team of historians, historical theologians, and editors to revise and update this father's classic text. The new edition adds important stories of the development of Christianity in Asia, India, and Africa, both in the early church as well as in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. It also highlights the stories of women and non-Europeans who significantly influenced the development of Christianity but whose contributions are often overlooked in previous overviews of church history. This concise book provides an easy-to-read guide to church history with intellectual substance. The new edition of Church History in Plain Language promises to set a new standard for readable church history.
The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation
by Justo L. González
In The Story of Christianity: Volume 1, Justo L. González, author of the highly praised three-volume History of Christian Thought, presents a narrative history of Christianity, from the Early Church to the Dawn of the Protestant Reformation. From Jesus’ faithful apostles to the early reformist John Wycliffe, González skillfully traces core theological issues and developments within the various traditions of the church, including major events outside of Europe, such as the Spanish and Portuguese conquest of the New World. This updated and expanded edition incorporates recent archaeological discoveries about the life of Early Christian Communities, as well as important contemporary research revealing the significant role of women throughout the history of the church. With lively storytelling, The Story of Christianity provides a fascinating and panoramic history of the dramatic events, colorful characters, and revolutionary ideas that shaped the first fifteen centuries of the church.
The History Of The Christian Church: From The Earliest Times To A.D. 461
by F. J. Foakes-Jackson
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Systematic Theology, Second Edition: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine
by Wayne A. Grudem
This new edition of Systematic Theology by Wayne Grudem may be the most important resource you can own for helping you understand Scripture and grow as a Christian. The most widely used resource of the last 30 years in its area with over 1 million copies sold, Systematic Theology by Wayne Grudem has been thoroughly revised and expanded (all 57 chapters) for the first time while retaining the features that have made it the standard in its field: clear explanations, an emphasis on each doctrine’s scriptural basis, and practical applications to daily life.
On Classical Trinitarianism: Retrieving the Nicene Doctrine of the Triune God
by Matthew Barrett, Ed.
Modern theology claimed that it ignited a renaissance in trinitarian theology. Really, it has been a renaissance in social trinitarianism. Classical commitments like divine simplicity have been jettisoned, the three persons have been redefined as three centers of consciousness and will, and modern agendas in politics, gender, and ecclesiology determine the terms of the discussion. Contemporary trinitarian theology has followed the spirit of this trajectory, rejecting doctrines like eternal generation which were once a hallmark of Nicene orthodoxy and reintroducing subordinationism into the Trinity.
by William G. Rusch
This volume explores the development of the doctrine of the Trinity in the patristic church as a result of the Arian controversy.
Mosheim’s Church History, of the First Two Centuries, (Maclaine’s Translation)
by Johann Lorenz Mosheim
This book takes you on a journey through the early centuries of Christianity, exploring the transformations and challenges faced by the first Christians. The author meticulously examines both the external and internal forces that shaped the nascent faith, from the political and religious landscape of the Roman Empire to the rise of influential leaders and diverse doctrines within the church.
The Septuagint with Apocrypha: Greek and English
by Lancelot C. L. Brenton
If you’re a student of Greek, you’ll appreciate this handy volume. It gives you the complete Septuagint text in parallel columns with Brenton’s English translation. You’ll gain a better understanding of the Scriptures because the Septuagint vocabulary is frequently found in quotations and terms used by the New Testament writers. This edition of the Septuagint, including Apocrypha, giving the complete Greek text along with a parallel English translation by Sir Lancelot Charles Lee Brenton (1807–1862), is a photo-reproduction of the work first published in London in 1851 (Samuel Bagster & Sons, Ltd.).
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by Michael Serveto
One of the most radical dissenters of the early Protestant Reformation was Michael Servetus (1511-1553), who set forth his antitrinitarian beliefs in his best known work, On the Errors of the Trinity, in 1531. He believed that Christ less than God the Father, yet still divine, similar to Arius. He spent most of his life running from both the Catholic Inquisition and the Protestant Reformers. He was captured and put to death in 1553.
The Racovian Catechism: With Notes and Illustrations,
Translated from the Latin; To Which Is Prefixed a Sketch of the History of Unitarianism in Poland and the Adjacent Countries
Faustus Socinus introduced a second stream of anti-trinitarianism that held Christ was not of a lesser divinity than God as Arius taught, but was fully human. He wrote a number of works, but his Racovian Catechism is perhaps the best well-known. He fled persecution in Italy and went on to inspire the founding of the Polish Brethren, which largely inspired the Unitarian movement.
The Golden Thread: A History of the Western Tradition, Volume I: The Ancient World and Christendom
by James Hankins and Allen C. Guelzo
"...a monumental work of reclamation and revival...The Golden Thread comes as a history, an argument, a treasure hoard." — The Wall Street Journal. It is a sweeping, resource-rich history of the ancient world and Christendom—designed for students and lifelong learners alike, and faithful to the enduring legacy of the Western tradition. This is Volume I of a two-part series tracing the story of Western civilization from antiquity to the modern age. Where do the threads that form the Western tradition originate, and how were they woven together over the two and a half millennia before A.D. 1500? What are the sources of our modern ideas about science, freedom, equality, law, good government, and virtue? These are the questions explored in The Golden Thread, Volume I: The Ancient World and Christendom. The story begins with the seminal culture of the classical Greeks and moves through the Hellenization of the east following the conquests of Alexander the Great. Hankins then narrates the rise and dominance of Rome and the fusion of Greco-Roman and Judea-Christian cultures in the Christian empire of the fourth century AD. The volume follows the history of Christendom from the fall of the Western Roman Empire, charts its centuries-long rivalry with the Islamic world, and culminates in the emergence of European civilization in the Middle Age and Renaissance. Written by two of the most distinguished historians of our time. It includes nearly 1000 curated images—sculptures, paintings, and artifacts—from the vaults of the West’s finest cultural institutions. Readers are not merely told what happened, but shown what was created—page after page alive with the rich architecture, sculpture, music, and painting and maps that gave visible form to the West’s most enduring aspirations.
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by Alister E. McGrath
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Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years
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The New York Times bestseller and definitive history of Christianity for our time—from the award-winning author of The Reformation and Silence. A product of electrifying scholarship conveyed with commanding skill, Diarmaid MacCulloch's Christianity goes back to the origins of the Hebrew Bible and encompasses the globe. It captures the major turning points in Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox history and fills in often neglected accounts of conversion and confrontation in Africa, Latin America, and Asia. MacCulloch introduces us to monks and crusaders, heretics and reformers, popes and abolitionists, and discover Christianity's essential role in shaping human history and the intimate lives of men and women. And he uncovers the roots of the faith that galvanized America, charting the surprising beliefs of the founding fathers, the rise of the Evangelical movement and of Pentecostalism, and the recent crises within the Catholic Church. Bursting with original insights and a great pleasure to read, this monumental religious history will not soon be surpassed.
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by Robert Barron
Today, more than a quarter of Americans claim no religious affiliation at all. Religious belief in general, and Christianity in particular, is increasingly regarded as mythical and unreasonable—the superstitious product of prescientific minds. But what do thoughtful Christians actually believe? In this short book, renowned preacher, teacher, and theologian Bishop Robert Barron invites skeptics, seekers, and lifelong Christians alike to consider this question through one of Christianity’s most pivotal texts: the Nicene Creed, an ancient statement of faith that has guided Christian thought for 1700 years and is still accepted by Christians around the world today. With philosophical and theological acumen, Bishop Barron walks through the Creed line by line, explaining its teachings on the mystery of the Trinity, the saving mission of Jesus Christ, and both the life of the Church below and the life of the world to come. Drawing on Sacred Scripture, Church teaching, and the richness of the Catholic intellectual tradition, What Christians Believe unfolds the essentials of the Christian faith with conviction and clarity.
Ancient Christianities: The First Five Hundred Years
by Paula Fredriksen
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Catholicism: A Journey to the Heart of the Faith
by Robert Barron
What is Catholicism? A two-thousand-year-old living tradition? A worldview? A way of life? A relationship? A mystery? In Catholicism, Bishop Robert Barron examines all these questions and more, seeking to capture the body, heart, and mind of the Catholic faith. Starting from the essential foundation of Jesus Christ’s Incarnation, life, and teaching, Bishop Barron moves through the defining elements of Catholicism—from sacraments, worship, and prayer, to Mary, the Apostles, and saints, to grace, salvation, heaven, and hell—using his distinct and dynamic grasp of art, literature, architecture, personal stories, Scripture, theology, philosophy, and history to present the Church to the world. Paired with his documentary film series of the same title, Catholicism is an intimate journey capturing “the Catholic thing” in all its depth and beauty. Eclectic, unique, and inspiring, Bishop Barron brings the faith to life for a new generation in a style that is faithful to timeless truths while simultaneously speaking in the language of contemporary life.
The First Seven Ecumenical Councils (325-787): Their History and Theology
by Leo Donald Davis
This unique work illustrates the contribution of these Councils in the development and formulation of Christian beliefs. It then shows how their legacies lingered throughout the centuries to inspire - or haunt - every generation.
The Story of the Christian Church
by Jesse Lyman Hurlbut
No institution has spanned more centuries and more continents than the Christian church. Its dramatic story is one of bloodshed and peace, corruption and purity. Here Dr. Hurlbut retells this story in an objective, concise, and clear style, emphasizing the spirit of the church, its growth and maturation, and the causes leading to historic events and their resulting influence. Accurate, up-to-date, and vividly presented, Hurlbut's Story of the Christian Church traces the six general periods of church history from A.D. 30 to the present day. A concluding section, covering the period since Dr. Hurlbut's death, has been added in this revised edition, thus giving the reader a complete, easily understood overview of the Christian church. Designed for two audiences, this book contains outlines and references in the margins to aid the student or teacher along with a continuous narrative and numerous illustrations for the general reader. It is ideal for Sunday school use, since it includes suggested outlines and review questions for each chapter at the end of the book.
History Of The Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes In One)
by Philip Schaff
A monumental work tracing the development of Christianity from its inception to the modern era. Spanning eight volumes condensed into one comprehensive edition, Schaff meticulously examines the growth of Christian doctrine, the evolution of church institutions, and the profound impact of key figures and events on global religious history. Through detailed scholarship and engaging narrative, Schaff provides readers with a thorough understanding of Christianity's journey through the centuries, making this work an essential resource for scholars and enthusiasts alike.
by Will and Ariel Durant
A concise survey of the culture and civilization of mankind, The Lessons of History is the result of a lifetime of research from Pulitzer Prize–winning historians Will and Ariel Durant. With their accessible compendium of philosophy and social progress, the Durants take us on a journey through history, exploring the possibilities and limitations of humanity over time. Juxtaposing the great lives, ideas, and accomplishments with cycles of war and conquest, the Durants reveal the towering themes of history and give meaning to our own.
1 Tad R. Callister, The Inevitable Apostasy and the Promised Restoration, (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Company, 2006), 105–114.
2 2 Corinthians 3:6.
3 Gregory of Nyssa, Oratio de deitate Filii et Spiriti Sancti, (Oration on the deity of the Son and of the Holy Spirit), pg 45.
4 James L. Barker, Apostasy from the Divine Church, (1960) p. 242; quoting Historire Ancienne de I’Eglise, Vol. II, p. 137,138.
5 John 1:1–4.
6 Genesis 1:26.
7 Augustine of Hippo: On the Trinity.
8 Phillip Cary, History of Christian Theology, The Teaching Company, 2009, Lecture 10.
IMAGES:
Athena Pronaia Sanctuary at Delphi, Greece. Constructed between 380–360 B.C., De architectura Book VII.
Statue of Constantine the Great commemorating his accession as Roman Emperor in A.D. 306. Outside York Minster, York, UK.
Plato and His Disciples in the Garden of the Academy, from La Vie Des Savants Illustres.
Ancient Cryllic Bible
Fresco of Emperor Constantine at Council in Nicaea church Hospital de los Venerables Sacerdotes by Juan de Valdes Leal, Seville, Spain.
Painting of resurrected Jesus Christ with Thomas the apostle. Christ Between the Apostles by Sebastiano Santi in Chiesa dei Santi Apostoli church, Venice, Italy.