more results...

Generic selectors
Exact matches only
Search in title
Search in content
Post Type Selectors
Search in posts
Search in pages
HISTORY of Christian Theology

The Advent and Development of the Papacy

Christ handing the keys to St. Peter. Painting.

Until the last part of the fourth century, Rome played only a minor role in the history of Christianity. Its ascension to prominence was primarily the result of imperial imposition and other political considerations. By far, the vast majority of popes have been sincere devout followers of Christ; however, once the bishops of Rome tasted the elixir of power, some were not satisfied until they claimed infallibility and ultimate authority over civil as well as ecclesiastical affairs. The rise and dominance of the papacy over Western civilization has had a major impact on world history and Western thought for more than fifteen hundred years.

Upon This Rock I Will Build My Church

The scriptural basis for the pope’s claim of primacy is found in Matthew 16:13–19:

When Jesus came into the coasts of Cæsarea Philippi, he asked his disciples, saying, Whom do men say that I the Son of man am? And they said, Some say that thou art John the Baptist: some, Elias; and others, Jeremias, or one of the prophets. He saith unto them, But whom say ye that I am? And Simon Peter answered and said, Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God.

And Jesus answered and said unto him, Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-jona: for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father which is in heaven. And I say also unto thee, That thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven.

The Roman Catholic tradition claims that 1) Christ gave Peter the keys to rule the kingdom of God on earth, 2) Christ changed Simon’s name to Peter to emphasize that Christ’s church would be built on the authority he gave Peter, 3) Peter was the first bishop of Rome, and 4) all succeeding bishops of Rome automatically received this divine authority.

Critics point out that the name Peter in Greek (Petros) is masculine and means a stone while a fixed, solid rock used for a foundation is the feminine word Petra. Both of these words were used in the original Greek, which could more appropriately be translated into English as follows:

And Jesus answered and said unto him, Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-jona: for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father which is in heaven. And I say also unto thee, That thou art Peter (Petros, a stone), and upon this solid rock (Petra) [referring back to the revealed truth of Christ’s divinity], I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it.

Non-Catholics emphasize that a testimony of the divinity of Christ obtained through revelation is the solid foundation of Christ’s church, not an individual who is like a loose stone. In the early church, Peter was not referred to as the foundational stone of the Church, but rather it was the revelation of Christ’s divinity. Hippolytus (165–236) adopted this interpretation. He said:

By this Spirit Peter spake that blessed word “Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God.” By this spirit the rock of the church was established. This is the Spirit, the Comforter, that is sent because of thee, that he may show thee to be the child of God.1

Hilary of Poitiers (310–367) also refered to Peter’s faith in Jesus as the foundation of the church. He wrote:

This faith [Peter’s confession] is the foundation of the church…This faith is a gift of revelation from the Father…(He) knew the Son of God by revelation from the Father…He confessed the Son of God and for that was blessed. This is the revelation of the Father, this is the foundation of the church.2

In the early church, Christ was universally recognized as the foundation of the church (1 Peter 2:4–8; Ephesians 2:39; 1 Corinthians 3:11) while the apostles were pillars (Galatians 2:9). Later, Augustine recognized the idea that some believed the reference to foundation in this verse referred to Peter, but the critical examination of Augustine’s comments makes it clear that he believed Christ was the cornerstone, not Peter.3

Very few people dispute that Christ appointed Peter to be the chief apostle and gave him the keys or authority to run the Church. He presided at the election of Matthias to the apostleship, on the day of Pentecost, and at the council in Jerusalem. God sent the first gentile convert to Peter and gave Peter a vision to understand that the message of the gospel was for gentiles as well as Jews. Some Protestants, however, dispute this position and claim that Jesus was talking to all the apostles or even all his followers when he gave them the keys to the kingdom and not just to Peter.

There is little evidence that Peter was the first bishop of Rome.4

The claim that Peter was bishop of Rome for twenty-five years is not found before the liberiuan Cataloguein in 354, and is historically inadmissible, as it cannot be reconciled with the earlier texts. …[N]ot until 354, when the tradition was growing old, do we find Peter definitely and positively styled the first bishop of Rome.5

Instead, the evidence shows that the apostles exercised general oversight over all of the local assemblies and they appointed a local overseer (episcopus or bishop) to preside over and minister to each congregation under the universal direction of the apostles. As a result, all the apostles were general overseers, not specific overseers of particular local congregations. According to the Catholic historian, Mouret:

[T]he first three popes [bishops] who presided over the destinies of the Church of Rome belonged to the lowest class of people. The first, Linus or Lin, was, it is thought, a former slave…Saint Epiphanius, who has preserved the list of the eleven first popes after a very ancient document, tells us that Lin governed the church for twelve years. The tradition recorded by the Liber Pontificalis adds that he maintained the rules established by Saint Peter, that he died a martyr and that he was buried in the Vatican.

The Liber Pontificalis seems to say that he began to govern the church in the lifetime of Peter; some authors have, in fact, thought that Saint Peter, absorbed by the duties of the apostolate, discharged on him [Linus] and on Clet the administration of the Roman church.6

Irenaeus also distinguishes the apostles from the local bishops of the congregations they established, including Rome.7 The congregations throughout Asia and in Lyons and Rome began to record the list of their local bishops, but it was not until the year 220 that the name of the founding apostle was first inserted into the list as its first bishop.8 There are multiple contradictory traditions regarding the identity of the first four bishops of Rome. Regardless, it is clear that Peter was not in Rome throughout the twenty-five years he allegedly presided there as its bishop because we have records of Peter being in Antioch and Jerusalem during this same time period.9 The early Christian author Lactantius “does not conceive of Peter’s residence at Rome as covering more than a short time during the reign of Nero, and that, although he reckons Peter’s missionary years as twenty-five, he distinctly implies that they were spent elsewhere.10

The idea that Peter’s keys of presidency automatically fell on his alleged successor bishop of Rome defies logic when we know that the apostle John, and probably several other apostles, survived Peter and no serious Christian historian asserts that Linus presided over an apostle. “There is no trace in the second century that Rome claimed supremacy because of its connection with Peter.” Indeed, after the death of the apostles, there was no central authority of the Great Church; each bishop was responsible to God alone for the administration of their own dioceses. Cyprian accurately expressed this tradition in his epistle addressing his dispute with Rome regarding the rebaptism of heretics which we discussed earlier. He wrote:

For neither does any one of us set himself up as a bishop of bishops, nor by any tyrannical terror does any compel his colleagues to the necessity of obedience; since every bishop according to the allowance of his liberty and power, has his own proper right to judgment, and can no more be judged by another than he himself can judge another [bishop].13

In which behalf we neither do violence to nor impose a law upon anyone, since each prelate has in the administration of the church the exercise of his free will, as he shall give an account of his conduct to the Lord.14

In the early church, the bishop of Rome had no special title and only played a minor role in the earliest ecumenical councils. Over time, the title of pope (father) began to apply to several of the regional bishops. “This title (pope) was not appropriated to the exclusive use of the holy see till the eleventh century.”15

However, a tradition of deference grew for the congregations which were established by an apostle in regards to questions of doctrine and practice as they were viewed as having the closest, and hence the most accurate understanding of the apostles’ teachings on any given subject. Rome was the only church of apostolic foundation in Western Europe, so its preeminence grew over time, especially a few centuries later when they asserted a double apostolic origin from both Peter and Paul. Rome’s civil-status as the capital of the Roman Empire, however, was the primary source of its growing power over other bishops.

The of Rise of Caesaropapism

Historically, Roman emperors were always the head of the state pagan religion, so when Constantine made Christianity the approved state religion, he naturally assumed that same role. At that time, there was no recognized central authority for Christianity, so the emperor filled the void. Historians refer to this as caesaropapism. Thereafter, the emperors were the ones who called the early ecumenical councils, and effectively held veto power over their decisions. All of the councils’ decisions required the emperor’s approval to be enforced. Indeed, these decisions echoed the emperor’s position and often switched when a new emperor held an opinion contrary to the position of a council called by the prior emperor, with most of the same bishops changing their votes to reflect the new emperor’s position. The great Christian historians Joseph Lortz and Edwin Kaiser wrote:

The Church had vanquished the persecuting Roman state and made it her ally only to find that the state turned Christian was not content to merely be an ally but sought to dominate the Church. By a native propensity almost impossible to eradicate, the Roman state held religion subservient to empire…Thus it can readily be understood how state protection of the Church often turned to oppressive tutelage, to caesaropapism. This must be remembered if the true forces behind the great doctrinal controversies of the fourth to the sixth centuries in the East are not to remain incomprehensible.

This interior strangulation of the Church—for caesaropapism was nothing less—was a far greater peril than persecution.16

This dynamic is demonstrated by the doctrinal disputes between the East and West that erupted after the death of Constantine. Immediately after his funeral, all of Constantine’s immediate relatives were massacred except his three sons and two nephews who were aligned with his sons. The sons divided the empire between themselves with Constans and Constantine II taking the west and Constantius taking the east. Constantius was Arian and rejected the Nicene Creed, while his brothers in the west followed it. The Eastern churches followed their emperor and held synods that rejected the Nicene Creed and excommunicated and exiled its advocate, Athanasian while the Western churches followed their emperor and held their own synods to countermand the Eastern council and reinstall Athanasian. They each accused the other of overstepping their bounds because it was understood that each bishop was independent of the other bishops and no one bishop had superiority, so the same principle applied to synods.

Over time, various political and ecclesiastical developments caused the Western emperor to call an ecumenical council to be held in a quasi-neutral location in current Bulgaria, halfway between Rome and Constantinople, in hopes of resolving the split. However, it did not last beyond the opening motion to seat Athanasian as a member of the council. The East left, held their own council in Philippopolis, excommunicated the bishop of Rome, and drew up a new confession of faith to replace the Nicene Creed. Meanwhile, the Western council excommunicated the Eastern bishops and passed disciplinary canons that included a provision that any party to a provincial council could appeal the decision to the bishop of Rome. This was the first time the bishop of Rome was given authority over the decision of a synod of other bishops.

Some people point to this decision as evidence that the bishop of Rome already had plenary power, but it actually proves the opposite. Rome was the only church in the Western empire that had been established by an apostle, and it was the capital of the Western empire, so it was the natural choice of the Western bishops as an arbiter to resolve an issue in their favor. If the bishop of Rome already had that power, there would have been no need to even mention it. Instead, the two sides continued to insist they were right and addressed their letters to all the bishops. It did not occur to them to address their petition to the bishop of Rome to make a definitive decision. “The churches of the East and West were sometimes at variance and at other times ‘in communion,’ but at no time were they united under a central church administration.”17 Over time, the Nicene Creed prevailed and the power of Rome’s bishop increased.

The Rise of the Papacy

Since the early patristic period, the bishop of Rome, like other bishops, was chosen by the consensus of the local clergy and then ratified by the laity of the diocese. As the power of the bishop of Rome grew, so did the efforts to capture this prized position, even leading to violence. In 366, there was a contested election resulting in a bloody three-day battle in Rome. A month later the clergy supporting the losing candidate revolted and took their last stand in another basilica, resulting in the death of 137 persons inside that sacred structure. The winning cleric, Pope Damasus, was the first bishop of Rome to assert papal rights when he fixed the canon of scripture for all the Holy Roman Catholic Church.18

Leo the Great was the first bishop of Rome to be called “the Great,” and was the first one for whom the term pope referred to the bishop of Rome exclusively. He was consecrated bishop of Rome in 440 and died in 461. He is referred to as one of the few “doctors” of the Roman Catholic Church, primarily for his contribution to its understanding of the nature of Christ which was adopted at the Council of Chalcedon. The Tome of Leo elucidates the concept of Christ as the hypostatic union of Jesus’s full human nature being united with his separate divine nature in one person without “confusion or division.” He played a major role in centralizing spiritual authority and increasing the bishop of Rome’s status within the Church. He was a powerful and dynamic pope as demonstrated by his success in persuading Attila the Hun to turn back and not attack Rome after he had devastated northern Italy.

The Demise of the Roman Empire

The Western half of the Roman Empire was in decline for quite a while and when the Ostrogoths conquered Rome in 476, the Western empire fractured into various kingdoms ruled by competing Germanic tribes and warlords. Even though the first Ostrogoth kings tolerated the existence of the Roman senate for a while, its influence waned like a flickering candle until it was extinguished and the Dark Ages enveloped the continent. The senatorial and aristocratic class did not just disappear. They gravitated to the most powerful institution that remained, the Church. Senators and aristocrats became its bishops, abbots and clergy, accelerating the church’s transformation into a secular power and a source of wealth, with the See of Rome being a particularly coveted prize.

Constantine created caesaropapism, in which the emperors functioned as the head of the Church. Augustine envisioned a world where the powers would be reversed, with the secular being subservient to the Church. This vision of the pope exercising secular as well as spiritual power over the populace was first realized under Pope Gregory the Great and became the model during much of the Middle Ages. Overall, this contest for supremacy between the church and state has been a dynamic that continued well into the modern period.

Gregory the Great became the pope in 590 and died in 604. He came to power after the last vestiges of the Roman Empire had disintegrated. The Byzantine Empire had conquered much of Italy, and the Germanic Lombards were a constant threat to Rome and were kept at bay through daily payments of tribute from the Church. The countryside was controlled by warlords and strongmen, and the Roman senate and other civil administrative bodies were in disarray or had been disbanded. Pope Gregory stepped in to fill the secular void. He paid the expenses to keep Rome functioning, supported refugees, arranged for the shipment of grain and repairs to the aqueducts. He directed diplomacy with the Lombards, planned military strategies and paid the soldiers. Out of necessity, he became the first pope to exercise both secular and spiritual authority over Rome. This dual power structure continued with the papacy until the modern era.

In the midst of all this chaos, Gregory instituted a huge missionary effort from Rome to convert the pagan Anglo-Saxons in the British Isles and was a prolific writer on Christian theology and sacramental spirituality. Over time he was able to build a peaceful relationship with the Lombards through years of patronage and leveraging his friendship with their king’s Catholic wife.

Gregory was a humble man by nature and hesitated to assume any authority he was not entitled to, yet he strenuously defended what he believed to be correct. As the western half of the empire fell into disarray, the patriarch of Constantinople sought to assert ecumenical authority over the whole church. Gregory objected. He held to the tradition that the bishop of Rome was the first among equals in relation to the other bishops, and he alone had the authority to judge other bishops regarding certain moral issues, even without an emperor to back him up. Yet Gregory did not claim full papal primacy, as this concept developed later. Regardless, he objected to the patriarch of Constantinople claiming ecumenical authority. Thus, the rivalry between the pope and the patriarch of Constantinople grew more pronounced.

For all these achievements in both civic and spiritual affairs, Gregory the Great is rightfully known as the “founder” of the medieval papacy and set its trajectory.19

go to previous article:

Boethius and Christian Philosophy

go to next article:

Islam

Additional Resources

on Amazon:

Letters and Sermons of Pope St. Leo I (The Great)

Letters and Sermons of Pope St. Leo I (The Great)

Leo’s pontificate, next to that of St. Gregory I, is the most significant and important in Christian antiquity. At a time when the Church was experiencing the greatest obstacles to her progress in consequence of the hastening disintegration of the Western Empire, while the Orient was profoundly agitated over dogmatic controversies, this great pope, with far-seeing sagacity and powerful hand, guided the destiny of the Roman and Universal Church.

Learn More
Saint Gregory the Great Collection

Saint Gregory the Great Collection: 3 Books

Pope Saint Gregory I, commonly known as Saint Gregory the Great, was pope of the Catholic Church from 3 September 590 to his death in 604. Gregory is well known for his writings, which were more prolific than those of any of his predecessors as pope. He is also known as Saint Gregory the Dialogist in Eastern Christianity because of his Dialogues.

Learn More
Leo the Great Collection: 2 books

Leo the Great Collection: 2 Books

Pope Saint Leo I, also known as Saint Leo the Great, was pope from 29 September 440 to his death in 461. He was an Italian aristocrat, and was the first pope to have been called “the Great”. He is perhaps best known for having met Attila the Hun in 452 and persuading him to turn back from his invasion of Italy. He is also a Doctor of the Church, most remembered theologically for issuing the Tome of Leo, a document which was a major foundation to the debates of the Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon.

Learn More
Book, The Human Quest for Meaning
Learn More
 

What if the greatest crisis of our time wasn’t political, economic, or even scientific, but spiritual? The Human Quest for Meaning, presents an unflinching, scholarly, and soul-searching excavation of humanity’s deepest longings. This work cuts through the fog of postmodern relativism and the sterile worship of science to confront the core dilemma of our time: why does a civilization without God still hunger for transcendence? Drawing from ethnological studies, ancient texts, and forgotten philosophical wisdom, Hallstrom traces the arc of religious and philosophical history; not to convert, but to clarify. In a world obsessed with novelty, this book dares to remember.

In this book, readers will delve into the surprising belief systems of some of the most primitive cultures, exploring why they revered a moral Supreme Being contrary to modern theories of religious evolution. The text also revisits the foundations of Christianity, not as dogma, but as a cultural and metaphysical force that shaped the Western mind. The book further explores how modern secularism has gradually replaced meaning with a mechanistic worldview and why this replacement is now collapsing. It presents concise, accessible summaries of major world religions, from Hinduism and Buddhism to Islam, Sikhism, Taoism, and Zoroastrianism to help broaden a reader’s global spiritual literacy.

In the face of cultural amnesia, this work offers clarity and equips readers with the tools to forge their own enduring philosophy of life. Hallstrom writes with scholarly rigor but aims for accessibility, avoiding dry academic jargon while still delivering a serious intellectual exploration that reads smoothly like a story. While books on religion and philosophy are not new, Hallstrom brings a refreshingly countercultural lens.

Whether you’re a skeptic, a seeker, or a believer, The Human Quest for Meaning will challenge your assumptions, deepen your worldview, and perhaps even awaken something within you.

Available in hardback, audio, paperback and e‑book.

Catechism of the Catholic Church

Catechism of the Catholic Church: Complete and Updated

by U.S. Catholic Church

The first new Catechism of the Catholic Church in more than 400 years, a complete summary of what Catholics around the world commonly believe.

Learn More
Church History in Plain Language

Church History in Plain Language

by Bruce Shelley and Marshall Shelley

Bruce Shelley's classic history of the church brings the story of global Christianity into the twenty-first century. Like a skilled screenwriter, Shelley begins each chapter with three elements: characters, setting, plot. Taking readers from the early centuries of the church up through the modern era he tells his readers a story of actual people, in a particular situation, taking action or being acted upon, provides a window into the circumstances and historical context, and from there develops the story of a major period or theme of Christian history. Covering recent events, this book also: Details the rapid growth of evangelical and Pentecostal Christianity in the southern hemisphere; Addresses the decline in traditional mainline denominations; Examines the influence of technology on the spread of the gospel; Discusses how Christianity intersects with other religions in countries all over the world. For this fifth edition, Marshall Shelley brought together a team of historians, historical theologians, and editors to revise and update this father's classic text. The new edition adds important stories of the development of Christianity in Asia, India, and Africa, both in the early church as well as in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. It also highlights the stories of women and non-Europeans who significantly influenced the development of Christianity but whose contributions are often overlooked in previous overviews of church history. This concise book provides an easy-to-read guide to church history with intellectual substance. The new edition of Church History in Plain Language promises to set a new standard for readable church history.

Learn More
The Story of Christianity

The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation

by Justo L. González

In The Story of Christianity: Volume 1, Justo L. González, author of the highly praised three-volume History of Christian Thought, presents a narrative history of Christianity, from the Early Church to the Dawn of the Protestant Reformation. From Jesus’ faithful apostles to the early reformist John Wycliffe, González skillfully traces core theological issues and developments within the various traditions of the church, including major events outside of Europe, such as the Spanish and Portuguese conquest of the New World. This updated and expanded edition incorporates recent archaeological discoveries about the life of Early Christian Communities, as well as important contemporary research revealing the significant role of women throughout the history of the church. With lively storytelling, The Story of Christianity provides a fascinating and panoramic history of the dramatic events, colorful characters, and revolutionary ideas that shaped the first fifteen centuries of the church.

Learn More
The History of the Christian Church

The History Of The Christian Church: From The Earliest Times To A.D. 461

by F. J. Foakes-Jackson

The History of the Christian Church: From the Earliest Times to A.D. 461 is a comprehensive book written by F.J. Foakes-Jackson and published in 1891. The book provides a detailed account of the development of Christianity from its origins up until the year 461. It covers the early Christian Church, the Roman Empire, the spread of Christianity throughout Europe and beyond, and the many religious and political conflicts that shaped the Church’s history.

Learn More
The History of the Church from Christ to Constantine

The History of the Church: From Christ to Constantine

by Eusebius

The only surviving historical record of the Church during its crucial first 300 years. Bishop Eusebius, a learned scholar who lived most of his life in Caesarea in Palestine, broke new ground in writing the history of Christianity and provided a model for all later ecclesiastical historians. In tracing the history of the Church from the time of Christ to the Great Persecution at the beginning of the fourth century, and ending with the conversion of the Emperor Constantine, his aim was to show the purity and continuity of the doctrinal tradition of Christianity and its struggle against persecutors and heretics.

Learn More
The Age of Faith: The Story of Civilization, Vol IV

The Age of Faith: The Story of Civilization, Volume IV

by Will Durant

The Story of Civilization, Volume IV: A history of medieval civilization—Christian, Islamic, and Judaic—from Constantine to Dante: A.D. 325-1300. This is the fourth volume of the classic, Pulitzer Prize-winning series.

Learn More
The Golden Thread

The Golden Thread: A History of the Western Tradition, Volume I: The Ancient World and Christendom

by James Hankins and Allen C. Guelzo

"...a monumental work of reclamation and revival...The Golden Thread comes as a history, an argument, a treasure hoard." — The Wall Street Journal. It is a sweeping, resource-rich history of the ancient world and Christendom—designed for students and lifelong learners alike, and faithful to the enduring legacy of the Western tradition. This is Volume I of a two-part series tracing the story of Western civilization from antiquity to the modern age. Where do the threads that form the Western tradition originate, and how were they woven together over the two and a half millennia before A.D. 1500? What are the sources of our modern ideas about science, freedom, equality, law, good government, and virtue? These are the questions explored in The Golden Thread, Volume I: The Ancient World and Christendom. The story begins with the seminal culture of the classical Greeks and moves through the Hellenization of the east following the conquests of Alexander the Great. Hankins then narrates the rise and dominance of Rome and the fusion of Greco-Roman and Judea-Christian cultures in the Christian empire of the fourth century AD. The volume follows the history of Christendom from the fall of the Western Roman Empire, charts its centuries-long rivalry with the Islamic world, and culminates in the emergence of European civilization in the Middle Age and Renaissance. Written by two of the most distinguished historians of our time. It includes nearly 1000 curated images—sculptures, paintings, and artifacts—from the vaults of the West’s finest cultural institutions. Readers are not merely told what happened, but shown what was created—page after page alive with the rich architecture, sculpture, music, and painting and maps that gave visible form to the West’s most enduring aspirations.

Learn More
Christian Theology

Christian Theology: An Introduction 6th Edition

by Alister E. McGrath

“The genius of Alister E. McGrath is his remarkable ability to write in a clear, concise, and lucid manner that draws both teachers and students to participate with the great thinkers of the Christian tradition, past and present. Education and illumination are the abundant fruits of this massive, well-organized text, which is sure to appeal to a wide range of Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox audiences. For this we are indebted to the author.” Dennis Ngien, Professor of Systematic Theology, Tyndale University College and Seminary, Toronto, Canada. “For sheer comprehensiveness, clarity, and coherence, Alister McGrath has produced the definitive textbook. Always accurate and engaging, students are gently introduced to the gift of Theology in a memorable way.” Ian S. Markham, Dean and President of Virginia Theological Seminary.

Learn More
The Christian Theology Reader

The Christian Theology Reader

by Alister E. McGrath

Regarded as the leading text in Christian theology for the last 25 years, Alister E. McGrath’s The Christian Theology Reader is now available in a new 5th edition featuring completely revised and updated content. It brings together more than 350 readings from over 200 sources that chart 2,000 years of Christian history, situates each reading within the appropriate historical and theological context with its own introduction, commentary, and study questions, includes new readings on world Christianity and feminist, liberation, and postcolonial theologies, as well as more selections by female theologians and theologians from the developing world, and contains additional pedagogical features, such as new discussion questions and case studies, and a robust website with new videos by the author to aid student learning. It is designed to function as a stand-alone volume, or as a companion to Christian Theology: An Introduction, 6th edition, for a complete overview of the subject.

Learn More
Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years

Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years

by Diarmaid MacCulloch

The New York Times bestseller and definitive history of Christianity for our time—from the award-winning author of The Reformation and Silence. A product of electrifying scholarship conveyed with commanding skill, Diarmaid MacCulloch's Christianity goes back to the origins of the Hebrew Bible and encompasses the globe. It captures the major turning points in Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox history and fills in often neglected accounts of conversion and confrontation in Africa, Latin America, and Asia. MacCulloch introduces us to monks and crusaders, heretics and reformers, popes and abolitionists, and discover Christianity's essential role in shaping human history and the intimate lives of men and women. And he uncovers the roots of the faith that galvanized America, charting the surprising beliefs of the founding fathers, the rise of the Evangelical movement and of Pentecostalism, and the recent crises within the Catholic Church. Bursting with original insights and a great pleasure to read, this monumental religious history will not soon be surpassed.

Learn More
Ancient Christianities

Ancient Christianities: The First Five Hundred Years

by Paula Fredriksen

How, over the course of five centuries, one particular god and one particular Christianity came to dominate late Roman imperial politics and piety. The ancient Mediterranean teemed with gods. For centuries, a practical religious pluralism prevailed. How, then, did one particular god come to dominate the politics and piety of the late Roman Empire? In Ancient Christianities, Paula Fredriksen traces the evolution of early Christianity—or rather, of early Christianities—through five centuries of Empire, mapping its pathways from the hills of Judea to the halls of Rome and Constantinople. The New Testament, as we know it, represents only a small selection of the many gospels, letters, acts of apostles, and revelations that circulated before the establishment of the imperial church. It tells how the gospel passed from Jesus, to the apostles, thence to Paul. But by using our peripheral vision, by looking to noncanonical and paracanonical texts, by availing ourselves of information derived from papyri, inscriptions, and archaeology, we can see a different, richer, much less linear story emerging. Fredriksen brings together these many sources to reconstruct the lively interactions of pagans, Jews, and Christians, tracing the conversions of Christianity from an energetic form of Jewish messianism to an arm of the late Roman state.

Learn More
Catholicism: A Journey to the Heart of the Faith

Catholicism: A Journey to the Heart of the Faith

by Robert Barron

What is Catholicism? A two-thousand-year-old living tradition? A worldview? A way of life? A relationship? A mystery? In Catholicism, Bishop Robert Barron examines all these questions and more, seeking to capture the body, heart, and mind of the Catholic faith. Starting from the essential foundation of Jesus Christ’s Incarnation, life, and teaching, Bishop Barron moves through the defining elements of Catholicism—from sacraments, worship, and prayer, to Mary, the Apostles, and saints, to grace, salvation, heaven, and hell—using his distinct and dynamic grasp of art, literature, architecture, personal stories, Scripture, theology, philosophy, and history to present the Church to the world. Paired with his documentary film series of the same title, Catholicism is an intimate journey capturing “the Catholic thing” in all its depth and beauty. Eclectic, unique, and inspiring, Bishop Barron brings the faith to life for a new generation in a style that is faithful to timeless truths while simultaneously speaking in the language of contemporary life.

Learn More
The Story of the Christian Church

The Story of the Christian Church

by Jesse Lyman Hurlbut

No institution has spanned more centuries and more continents than the Christian church. Its dramatic story is one of bloodshed and peace, corruption and purity. Here Dr. Hurlbut retells this story in an objective, concise, and clear style, emphasizing the spirit of the church, its growth and maturation, and the causes leading to historic events and their resulting influence. Accurate, up-to-date, and vividly presented, Hurlbut's Story of the Christian Church traces the six general periods of church history from A.D. 30 to the present day. A concluding section, covering the period since Dr. Hurlbut's death, has been added in this revised edition, thus giving the reader a complete, easily understood overview of the Christian church. Designed for two audiences, this book contains outlines and references in the margins to aid the student or teacher along with a continuous narrative and numerous illustrations for the general reader. It is ideal for Sunday school use, since it includes suggested outlines and review questions for each chapter at the end of the book.

Learn More
History of the Christian Church, 8 volumes

History Of The Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes In One)

by Philip Schaff

A monumental work tracing the development of Christianity from its inception to the modern era. Spanning eight volumes condensed into one comprehensive edition, Schaff meticulously examines the growth of Christian doctrine, the evolution of church institutions, and the profound impact of key figures and events on global religious history. Through detailed scholarship and engaging narrative, Schaff provides readers with a thorough understanding of Christianity's journey through the centuries, making this work an essential resource for scholars and enthusiasts alike.

Learn More
The Lessons of History

The Lessons of History

by Will and Ariel Durant

A concise survey of the culture and civilization of mankind, The Lessons of History is the result of a lifetime of research from Pulitzer Prize–winning historians Will and Ariel Durant. With their accessible compendium of philosophy and social progress, the Durants take us on a journey through history, exploring the possibilities and limitations of humanity over time. Juxtaposing the great lives, ideas, and accomplishments with cycles of war and conquest, the Durants reveal the towering themes of history and give meaning to our own.

Learn More
1 Barker, Apostasy, p. 629, quoting Hilary of Poitiers, De Trinitate, VI, 37, composed between 356 and 359 against the Arians, cited by Shotwell and Loomis, The See of Peter, p. 589.

2 William Cook, Reason and Faith: Philosophy in the Middle Ages, (The Teaching Company, 2007), Lectures 5–6; Dorsey Armstrong, Great Minds of the Medieval World, (The Teaching Company, 2014), Lecture 3; John M. Bowers, The Western Literary Canon in Context, (The Teaching Company, 2008), Lecture 12.

3 Thomas Powers, Introduction to Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius, translated into middle English by Geoffrey Chaucer, and into modern English by Thomas Powers. https://parabola.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Boethius-rendered-into-modern-English-by-Thomas-Powers.pdf

4 Boethius, Consolation of Philosophy, translated into middle English by Geoffrey Chaucer, and into modern English by Thomas Powers. https://parabola.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Boethius-rendered-into-modern-English-by-Thomas-Powers.pdf.

5 Thomas Powers’ Background to his translation of Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius, https://parabola.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Boethius-rendered-into-modern-English-by-Thomas-Powers.pdf

IMAGES:

Christ_Handing_the_Keys_to_St._Peter, by_Pietro_Perugino, c. 1481–1482, Sistine Chapel, Rome [PD-old-100]

ClearStone Publishing hopes that this site will assist you in your quest for truth and your desire to connect with God.

 

Please share if you found this post informative.